Grammar Translation Method

The Definition of Grammar Translation Method

Grammar translation method is “A method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities.”[1]

The use of grammar-translation method in ESL clasess will anable students to discuss Austine J Damiani (2003) in his study “The Grammar Translation Method of Language Teaching” writes “as a teacher, I liked using the grammar translation method because I could assume the intelligent of my students; I could talk to them like the intelligent people that they are, and we could talk about the grammar and vocabulary that I was teaching. In another method, I would have had to use simple language and familiar phrases to communicate in the target language, and even then, I could not be sure that my students knew and understood what it was that they were saying.”[2]

Grammar translation method was called the classical method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical language, Latin and Greek (Chastain 1988). The origin of this method lie in an attempt to teach languages by grammar and translation were the learners have to gather knowledge of foreign languages by studying a number of grammatical rules and applying these knowledge to the interpretation of text with the use of dictionary. Through the study of the grammar of target language, students would become more familiar with the grammar of their native language and that is familiarly would help them speak and write their native language better. (Larsen-Freeman, Diane)[3]

Grammar translation method is a methodology that used by the teacher to teach English with the students. Grammar translation method is the one of old method. Simply, grammar translation method is a teaching method that used to teaching a grammatical which the main characteristic focused on translation, grammar structure, and vocabulary. The purpose of grammar translation method for the students is to teach the students about the grammatical in English and the students can translate their mother tongue or used the grammatical correctly in speaking or writing.

The Principles of Grammar Translation method

Principally, the grammar translation method is focused on translating the grammar form, memorized the vocabulary, learn the rules, and studying the conjunction.

There are some experts stated about the grammar translation method, According to Diane Larsen-Freeman on her book ‘Technique and principles in Language Teaching’ the principles of grammar translation method are organized by answering the question below:[4]

1. What are the goals of teachers who use the grammar-translation method?

According to the teachers who use the grammar translation method, fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature written in the target language. To do this, students need to learn about the grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language. In addition, it is believed that studying a foreign language provides students with good mental exercise which helps develop their minds.

2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?

The roles are very traditional. The teacher is the authority in this classroom. The students do as she says so they can learn what she knows.

3. What are the characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

Students are taught to translate from one language to another. Often that they translate are readings in the target language about some aspect of the culture of the target language community. Students study grammar deductively; that is, they are given the grammar rules and examples, are told to memorized them, and then are asked to apply the rules to other examples. They memorize native-language equivalents for target language vocabulary words.

4. What is the nature of the student-teacher interaction? What is the student-student interaction?

Most of the interaction in the class is from the teacher to the students. There is little student initiation and little student-student interaction.

5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

There are no principles of the method which relate to this area.

6. How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?

Literary language is considered superior to spoken language and therefore the language that the students study. Culture is viewed as consisting of literature and the fine arts.

7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?

Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. Reading and writing are primary skills that the students work on. There is much less attention given to speaking and listening. Pronunciation receives little, if any attention.

8. What is role of the students’ native language?

The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating it into the students’ native language. The language that is used in class is mostly the students’ native language.

9. How is evaluation accomplished?

Written tests in which students are asked to translate from their native language to the target language or vice versa are often used. Questions about the target culture or questions that ask students to apply grammar rule are also common.

10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Having the students get the correct answer is considered very important. If the students make errors or do not know an answer, the teacher applies them with the correct answer.

The Procedures of Grammar Translation Method

The procedure of teaching English is simply combination activities of the teaching English grammar and translation. The teaching is begins with the rule, vocabulary, paradigms, and translation. First, teacher explains the rule to the students in first language with simple words and the teacher put into slots of grammatical rule. The students, then, practice by using the rule which explain by the teacher.

However for teaching grammar the teacher can use the procedures of grammar translation method adapted from Larsen-Freeman (2000: 15-17):

1. The class reads a text written in the target language.
2. Students translate the passage from the target language to the mother tongue.
3. The teacher asks students in their native language if they have any questions, student ask questions and the teacher answer the questions in their native language.
4. Students write out the answers to reading comprehension questions.
5. Students translate new words from the target language to their mother tongue.
6. Student are given a grammar rule and based on the example they apply the rule by using the new words.
7. Students memorize vocabulary.
8. The teacher asks students to state the grammar rule
9. Students memorize the rule.
10. Errors are corrected by providing the right answers.[5]

In the procedures above the teacher can use in the class when they are teaching the grammatical of English. Therefore teacher may have their personal procedure to teach English to the students, the teacher can use their personal procedure and teach with simple procedure so that they do not have difficulties to teach their students, and the student may be understand with the teacher explanation of their personal procedure used.

The Characteristics of Grammar Translation Method

Based on the Jack C. Richards on his book (Approached and Method in Language Teaching) the principal characteristics of the Grammar-Translation Method were these:

1. The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign-language study. Grammar translation is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language. It hence views language learning as consisting of little more than memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate the morphology and syntax of the foreign language. “The first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language” (Stern 1983: 455).
2. Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening.
3. Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization. In a typical Grammar-Translation text, the grammar rules are presented and illustrated, a list of vocabulary items are presented with their translation equivalents, and translation exercises are prescribed.
4. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the method. Earlier approaches to foreign language study used grammar as an aid to the study of texts in a foreign language, but this was thought to be too difficult for students in secondary schools, and the focus on the sentence was an attempt to make language learning easier (see Howatt, 1984: 131).
5. Accuracy is emphasized. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation, because of “the high priority attached to meticulous standards of accuracy which, as well as having an intrinsic moral value, was a prerequisite for passing the increasing number of formal written examinations that grew up during the century” (Howatt 1984: 132).
6. Grammar is taught deductively – that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exercises. In most Grammar-Translation texts, a syllabus was followed for the sequencing of grammar points throughout a text, and there was an attempt to teach grammar in 3n organized and systematic way.
7. The student’s native language is the medium o f instruction. It is used to explain new items and to enable comparisons to be made between the foreign language and the student’s native language.[6]

The Advantage and Disadvantage of Grammar Translation Method[7]

Advantages of Grammar Translation Method.

• The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one language into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items in the second language is found time consuming. A lot of time is wasted if the meanings of lexical items are explained through definitions and illustrations in the second language. Further, learners acquire some short of accuracy in understanding synonyms in the source language and the target language.
• Teacher’s labor is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. Pupils will not have much difficulty in responding to questions on the mother tongue. So, the teacher can easily assess whether the students have learn what he has taught them. Communication between the teacher and the learners does not cause linguistic problems. Even teachers who are not fluent in English can teach English through this method. That is perhaps the reason why this method has been practiced so widely and has survived so long.

Disadvantages of Grammar Translation Method

• It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking, reading and writing. That is the way how the child learns his mother tongue in natural surroundings. But in the Grammar Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses problems.
• Speech is neglected. The Grammar Translation Method lays emphasis on reading and writing. It neglects speech. Thus, the students who are taught English through this method fail to express themselves adequately in spoken English. Even at the undergraduate stage they feel shy of communicating through English. It has been observed that in a class, which is taught English through this method, learners listen to the mother tongue more than that to the second/foreign language. Since language learning involves habit formation such students fail to acquire habit of speaking English. Thus, they have to pay a heavy price for being taught through this method.
• Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to another is not always possible. A language is the result of various customs, traditions, and modes of behavior of a speech community and these traditions differ from community to community. There are several lexical items in one language, which have no synonyms/equivalents in another language. For instance, the meaning of the English word ‘table’ does not fit in such expression as the ‘table of contents’, ‘table of figures’, ‘multiplication table’, ‘time table’ and ‘table the resolution’, etc. English prepositions are also difficult to translate. Consider sentences such as ‘We see with our eyes’, ‘Bombay is far from Delhi’, ‘He died of cholera’, He succeeded through hard work’. In these sentences ‘with’, ‘from’, ‘of’, ‘through’ can be translated into the Hindi preposition ‘se’ and vice versa. Each language has its own structure, idiom and usage, which do not have their exact counterparts in another language. Thus, translation should be considered an index of one’s proficiency in a language.
• It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the Grammar Translation Method does not provide any such practice to the learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak any language, whether native or foreign entirely by rule is quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which can be learnt through practice and not by just memorizing rules. The persons who have learnt a foreign or second language through this method find it difficult to give up the habit of first thinking in their mother tongue and then translating their ideas into the second language. They, therefore, fail to get proficiency in the second language approximating that in the first language. The method, therefore, suffers from certain weaknesses for which there is no remedy.

REFERENCES

Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2000. Technique and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Page: 17-19

Mart, Cagri Tugrul, “The Grammar-Translation Method and the Use of Translation to facilitate learning in ESL Classes”, Journal of Advances in English language Teaching 2013. Department of Language, Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq, 3013.

Shih-Chuan Chang.A Contrastive Study of Grammar Translation Method and Communicative Approach in Teaching English Grammar.Department of Foreign Languages, Cheng Shui University, 2011.

Rahman, Marzana. Grammar Translation Method (GTM): An effective and feasible method in Bangladeshi context. Department of English and Humanities. BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2012.

Richards, Jack C, & Theodore S. Rodgers. Approaches and Method in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Page: 3-4

Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2002).Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Pearson Education Limited. pp.231.

Setiyadi, Ag Bambang 2006. TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE. Graha Ilmu. Yogyakarta. Page: 36-37

[1]Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2002).Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Pearson Education Limited. pp.231.

[2] Mart, Cagri Tugrul, “The Grammar-Translation Method and the Use of Translation to facilitate learning in ESL Classes”, Journal of Advances in English language Teaching 2013. Department of Language, Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq, 3013.

[3] Rahman, Marzana. Grammar Translation Method (GTM): An effective and feasible method in Bangladeshi context. Department of English and Humanities. BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2012.

[4] Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2000. Technique and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Page: 17-19

[5] Setiyadi, Ag Bambang 2006. TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE. Graha Ilmu. Yogyakarta. Page: 36-37

[6] Richards, Jack C, & Theodore S. Rodgers. Approaches and Method in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Page: 3-4

[7] https://www.scribd.com/Tuesday, 13rd 2018/14:12.

Silent Way Method

Description

Silent Way originated in the early 1970s and was the brainchild of the late Caleb Gattegno. The last line of Benjamin Franklin’s famous quote about teaching and learning can be said to lie at the heart of Silent Way. The three basic tenets of the approach are that learning is facilitated if the learner discovers rather than remembers or repeats, that learning is aided by physical objects, and that problem-solving is central to learning. The use of the word “silent” is also significant, as Silent Way is based on the premise that the teacher should be as silent as possible in the classroom in order to encourage the learner to produce as much language as possible.As far as the presentation of language is concerned, Silent Way adopts a highly structural approach, with language taught through sentences in a sequence based on grammatical complexity, described by some as a “building-block” approach.

The structural patterns of the target language are presented by the teacher and the grammar “rules” of the language are learnt inductively by the learners. Cuisenaire rods (small coloured blocks of varying sizes originally intended for the teaching of mathematics) are often used to illustrate meaning (the physical objects mentioned above). New items are added sparingly by the teacher and learners take these as far as they can in their communication until the need for the next new item becomes apparent. The teacher then provides this new item by modelling it very clearly just once. The learners are then left to use the new item and to incorporate it into their existing stock of language, again taking it as far as they can until the next item is needed and so on.

This is perhaps best illustrated by an example. Let us say that the teacher has introduced the idea of pronouns as in “Give me a green rod”. The class will then use this structure until it is clearly assimilated, using, in addition, all the other colours. One member of the class would now like to ask another to pass a rod to a third student but she does not know the word “her”, only that it cannot be “me”. At this point the teacher would intervene and supply the new item: “Give her the green rod” and the learners will continue until the next new item is needed (probably “him”). This minimalist role of the teacher has led some critics to describe Silent Way teachers as “aloof” and, indeed, this apparently excessive degree of self-restraint can be seen as such.The prominent writer on language teaching, Earl W. Stevick, has described the role of the teacher in Silent Way as “Teach, test, get out of the way”. The apparent lack of real communication in the approach has also been criticized, with some arguing that it is difficult to take the approach beyond the very basics of the language, with only highly motivated learners being able to generate real communication from the rigid structures illustrated by the rods. The fact that, for logistical reasons, it is limited to relatively small groups of learners is also seen as a weakness.

As with other methods and approaches, however, aspects of Silent Way can be observed in many lessons in the modern classroom. In the 1980s and early 90s, for example, it became fashionable in some quarters to argue that excessive “teacher talking time” was something to be discouraged. Cuisenaire rods are also popular with some teachers and can be used extremely creatively for various purposes from teaching pronunciation to story-telling. The idea of modelling a new structure or item of vocabulary just once may also have some justification as it encourages learners both to listen more carefully and then to experiment with their own production of the utterance. Lastly, the problem-solving feature of Silent Way may well prove to be its most enduring legacy as it has led indirectly both to the idea of Task-based Learning and to the widespread use of problem-solving activities in language classrooms.

Definiftion

The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. Gattegno’s name is well known for his revival of interest in the use of colored wooden sticks called cuisenaire rods and for his series Words in Color, an approach to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds are coded by specific colors. His materials are copyrighted and marketed through an organization he operates called Educational Solutions Inc., in New York. The Silent Way represents Gattegno’s venture into the field of foreign language teaching. It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible. Elements of the Silent Way, particularly the use of color charts and the colored cuisenaire rods, grew out of Gattegno’s previous experience as an educational designer of reading and mathematics programs. (Cuisenaire rods were first developed by Georges Cuis­enaire, a European educator who used them for the teaching of math. Gattegno had observed Cuisenaire and this gave him the idea for their use in language teaching). Here are the definition of silent way based on expert’s ideas :

1. According to Caleb Gattegno The Silent Way is a language teaching methodology which was devised by Caleb Gattegno in the 1960s. Gattegno states that “a foreign language can only be learnt in schools by artificial methods, employing materials constructed for the purpose”.
2. According to Richards & Rodgers the silent way as the name already suggests, the method is built upon the hypothesis that inside the classroom the teacher should be as silent as possible, whereas the students/learners should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible, participate actively in class and in this way become autonomous learners. Silence is regarded as the best instrument for learning in the classroom, because “in silence students concentrate on the task to be accomplished and the potential means for its accomplishment” .[1]
3. According to oxford learners dictionaries the silent way is a method of teaching a foreign language in which the teacher does not speak much, but uses movement, pictures and wooden rods to explain meaning.[2]
4. According to Pint The Silent Way, in practical application, most closely resembles the concept of discovery learning, on which it has had great influence. In the administration of Silent Way, the teacher assumes the role of a facilitator, or guide, in the process of increased awareness. With minimal direct instruction, the teacher provides ample opportunities for his or her students to gain understanding through self-exploration and activities based on free thought. While employing the Silent Way, teachers are to remain as silent as possible, allowing their students every opportunity to gain this increased awareness unaided. [3]

In conclusion, the Silent Way is a great approach to make a more student-centered classroom. The activity in the Silent Way allows students to find many ways in expressing the situation in the target language. The goals of the teacher’s silence are the students’ progress in learning English, such as the students can practice the language, they are curious about it and they begin to explore it actively.

 The Principles of Silent Way Method

The silent way has a great many principles. Perhaps we can come to a fuller understanding of them if we consider the answers to our ten questions. Here are the principles of silent way method :

1. What are the goals of teachers who use the silent way?

Students should be able to use the language for self expression to express their thought,preceptions, and feelings. In order to do this,they need to develop independence from the teacher,to develop their own inner criteria for correctness. Students become independent by relying on themselves. The teacher should give them only what they absolutely need to promote their learning.

2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?

The teacher is a technician or engineer. “only the learner can do the learning”, but the teacher, relying on what his students already knows,can give what help is necessary, focus the student’s preceptions, “force their awareness” and “provide exercises to insure their facility” with the language.

The role of the students is to make use of what they know, to free themselves of any obstacles that would interfere with giving their utmost attention to the learning task, and actively engage in exploring the language. As gattegno says “the teacher works with the students; the student works on the language”.

3. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

Students begin their study of the language through its basic building blocks, its sound. These are introduced through a language specific sound-color chart. Relying on what sounds students already know from their knowledge of their native language, teachers lead their students to associate the sounds of the target language with particular colors. Later ,these same colors are used to help students learn the spelling that correspond to the sounds(through the color-coded fidel charts) and how to read and pronounce words properly (through the color-coded word charts).

4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student imteraction?

For much of students-teacher interaction, the teacher is silent. He is still very active, however setting up situation to “force awareness”, listening attentively to student’s speech, and silently working with them on their production. When the teacher does speak, it is to give clues, not to model the language

Student verbal interaction is desirable (students can learn from one another) and is therefore encouraged. The teacher’s silence is one way to do this.

5. How are the feelings of the students deal with?

The teacher constntly observes the students. When their feelings interfere, the teacher tries to find ways for the students to overcome them. Also, through feedback sessions at the end of lessons, students have an oppurtunity to express how they feel. The teacher takes what they say into consideration and works with the students  to help them overcome negative feelings which might otherwise interfere with their learning. Finally, because students are encouraged throughout each lesson to cooperate with one another, it is hoped that a relaxed, enjoyable learning environment will be created.

6. How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?

Languages of the world share a number of features. However, each language also has its own unique reality, or spirit, since it is the expression of a particular group of people. Their culture , as reflected in their own unique world view, is inseparable from their language.

7. What areas of language are emphasized? What the language skill are emphasized?

Since the sounds are basic to any language, pronunciation is worked on from the beginning. It is important that students acquire the melody of the language. There is also a focus on the structures of the language, although explicit grammar rules may never be supplied. Vocabulary is somewhat restricted at first.

There is no fixed, linear, structural syllabus. Instead, the teacher starts with what the students know and builds from one structure to the next. As the  learners’ repertoire is expanded, previously introduced structures are continually being recycled. The syllabus develops according to learning needs.

All four skills are worked on from the beginning of the course, although there is sequence in that students learn to read and write what they have already produced orally. The skills reinforce what students are learning.

8. What is the role of students’ native language?

Meaning is made clear by focusing the students’ perceptions, not by translation. The students’ native language can,however, be used to give instructions when necessary, to help a student improve his or pronunciation, for instance. The native language is also used (at least at beginning levels of  proficiency) during the feedback sessions.

More important, knowledge students already  possess of their native language can be exploited by the teacher of the target language. For example, the teacher knows that many of the sounds in the students’ native language will be similar, if not identical, to sounds in the target language; he assumea, then, that he can build upon this existing knowledge to introduce the new sounds in the target language.

9. How is evaluation accomplished?

Although the teacher may never give a formal test, he assesses student learning all the time. Since “teaching is subordinated to learning”, the teacher must be responsive to immediate learning needs. The teacher’s silence frees him to attend to his students and to be awareof these needs. The needs will be apparent to a teacher who is observant of his students’ behavior. One  criterion of whether or not students have learned is their ability to transfer what they have been studying to new contexts.

10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Student errors are seen as a natural, imdispensable part of the learning process. Errors are inevitable since the students are encouraged to explore the language. The teacher uses student errors as a basis for deciding where further work necessary.[4]

The materials used for the silent way method

Gattegno’s name is well known for his revival of interest in the use of coloured wooden sticks called Cuisenaire rods and for his series Words in Colour, an approach to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds are coded by specific colours.

1. Cuisenaire Rods

Cuisenaire rods can be used to provide visible actions for any language structure. A sound-color chart for English; these charts are used right from the beginning stages to teach pronunciation and word stress.  The chart has a black background and is covered with small rectangular blocks arranged in rows. Each block is a different colour. Each rectangle represents one English sound. There is a white line separating the upper vowel sounds and the lower consonant sounds. Without saying any thing the teacher points out the rectangles. There is silence. Seconding time pointing also followed by silence. Third time he says /a/ as he touches the first block. As he does this students say /e,i,o,u/ While pointing /e/ the teacher puts her two palms together then spreads them apart to indicate lengthening the sound. [5]

2. Sound Colour Chart

The chart contains blocks of colour, each one representing a sound in the target language. The sound-colour chart gives a direct link between sounds and colours, and in doing so, avoids the confusion caused by the irregular English spellings. The original English sound-colour chart was developed for teaching native speakers how to read as a part of Gattegno’s Words in Color program, which addressed the problem of learning to read and write. The original arrangement of the rectangles reflect sequence of the introduction of spellings in that program, whereas the arrangement of the British English sound-color chart (pictured above) reflects the special features of the English sound system.

In the Silent Way students are seen as bringing a vast amount of experience and knowledge with them to the classroom; namely, their first language. The teacher capitalizes on this knowledge when introducing new material, always building from the known to the unknown. The students begin their study of the language by studying its sound system. The sounds are associated to different colors using a sound-color chart that is specific to the language being learned. The teacher first introduces sounds that are already present in the students’ native language, and then progresses to sounds that are new to them. These sound-color associations are later used to help the students with spelling, reading, and pronunciation.

3. Word Chart

The word charts present the most common English words, using the same colour code as the sound-colour chart and the Fidel. Gattegno called these words the “functional vocabulary”. There are twelve English charts containing about 500 words . Many of these words in these charts cannot be directly translated into other languages, making them the most difficult and also most important words for beginners to learn.[6]

4. Fidel Chart

It displays all the spelling of the English language arranged according to their sound. The arrangement of the chart is identical to that of the Sound-Colour chart. Spellings are grouped and color coded to indicate their pronunciation. Fidel charts show the variations in spelling and sound of the target language, through a system of phonetic groupings. Students can use a pointer and a Fidel chart to sound out and form new words, or existing vocabulary words.[7]

5. Wall Pictures

Wall pictures provide an important visual aid to the learning process. These wall pictures provide an image of the physical representation of the word being learned, as well as a color-coded version of the word itself. For example, when learning the word “cat,” students will be presented with a picture of a cat, and the color-coded word “cat” below. This provides valuable contextual information about the meaning and usage of the word.

6. Teaching Learning Process

Gattegno anticipates that using the Silent Way would require most teachers to change their perception of their role. Stevick defines the Silent Way teacher’s tasks as (a) to teach, (b) to test, and (c) to get out of the way (Stevick 1980: 56). Although this may not seem to constitute a radical alternative to standard teaching practice, the details of the steps the teacher is expected to follow are unique to the Silent Way.

Procedure of The Silent Way Method

Students begin their study of the language pronunciation through its basic building blocks, its sounds. Relying on what sounds students already know from their knowledge of their native language, teachers lead their students to associate the sounds of the target language with particular colour of the sound colour chart. Later these same colours are used to help students learn the spellings that correspond to the sounds. For this purpose coded fidel charts can be used. Proper reading and pronunciation practice can be given using word charts.

After practice with the sounds of the language, sentence patterns, structure and vocabulary are practiced. If a response is incorrect, the teacher will attempt to reshape the utterance or have another student present the correct model. The first part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation.

The teacher sets up situations that focus students attention on the structures of the language and these situations provide a vehicle for students to perceive meaning. Students typically involve only one structure at a time. Teachers work with the students striving for pronunciation that would be intelligible to a native speaker of the target language. Students receive a great deal of practice with a given target language structure without repetition for its own sake. The teacher asks the students to describe their reactions to the lesson or what they have learned and this encourage the students to take responsibility for their own learning.

For much of the student – teacher interaction, the teacher is silent. She is active and setting up situations to force awareness, listening attentively to students speech and silently working with them on their production through the use of non verbal gestures and the tools available.

Advantage and Disadvantages of The Silent Way Method

1. Advantages
2. Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters.
3. Creativity
4. Discovery
5. Increase in intelligent potency and
6. Long term memory
7. The indirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the learner who is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how language works. In other words teaching is subordinated to learning.
8. Disadvantages
9. The Silent Way is often criticized of being a harsh method. The learner works in isolation and communication is lacking badly in a Silent Way classroom.
10. With minimum help on the part of the teacher, the Silent Way method may put the learning itself at stake.
11. The material ( the rods and the charts) used in this method will certainly fail to introduce all aspects of language. Other materials will have to be introduced.[8]

 

REFERENCES

Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching Second Edition. New York: Oxford University Press.

1987. Douglas Brown.1987. Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

https://sites.google.com/site/theeltpractitioner/archive/volume-i-number-iii/6-silent-way/accessed on tuesday,3/4/2018

http://teflpedia.com/Silent_Way /accessed on monday,2/04/2018

https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/the-silent-way/accessed on monday,2/04/2018

Stevick, Earl (1974). “Review of Teaching Foreign Languages in the Schools: The Silent Way” (PDF). TESOL Quarterly 8 (3): 305–313. doi:10.2307/3586174. Retrieved 2011-04-28.

[1] http://teflpedia.com/Silent_Way /accessed on monday,2/04/2018

[2]  https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/the-silent-way/accessed on monday,2/04/2018

[3]  https://sites.google.com/site/theeltpractitioner/archive/volume-i-number-iii/6-silent-way/accessed on tuesday,3/4/2018

[4]  Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching Second Edition. New York: Oxford University Press.

[5] Stevick 1974, p. 2.

[6] Larsen-Freeman 2000, pp. 69–70.

[7]Larsen-Freeman 2000, p. 70.

[8]  H. Douglas Brown.1987. Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Suggestopedia

 

Suggestopedia

                        Suggestopedia is a teaching method, which focuses on how to deal with the relationship between mental potential and learning ability and it is very appropriate to use in teaching speaking for young language learners (Xue, 2005).[1]

                        Suggestopedia (also known as superlearning,hyperlearning, or the Lozanov method) is a teaching technique that uses “waking state suggestions and unusual presentation styles to accelerate learning” (Schuster, Bordon, and Gritton 1976). [2]                                             Suggestopedia, according to Lozanov, is a nonmanipulative and nonhypnotic method of learning that provides deeper knowledge; it involves the study of suggestion, which is the science of tapping human reserve capacities in the domain of mind and body.[3]

                        based on oxford learner’s dictionaries suggestopedia is a method of teaching a foreign language in which students learn quickly by being made to feel relaxed, interested and positive.[4]

                        Suggestopedia includes elements such as the use of relaxing music, art and the additional importance that is given to the learning environment as well as the authoritative behaviour of the teacher (Richards & Rodgers 2001, p. 100).[5]

                        Suggestopaedia is a teaching system which makes use of all the possibilities tender suggestion can offer. Of course, the systematic academic participation is not neglected but is always in accord with the suggestive. The first experiment of memorising 1000 French words in one day was merely a memorisation experiment. It would have served as a basis for the development of the suggestopaedic methodology. The first suggestopaedic courses that followed marked the beginning of the development of the methodology. Three stages in teaching the new lesson were recognised and they have been preserved with slight modifications. Here they are:

1.Deciphering.

                        This was the first stage of each lesson. The teacher explained to the students in the classical way the content of the lesson, the new vocabulary, the grammar and somepeculiarities so that the latter achieve speaking skills.

2.Memorisation seance.

                        At that time we thought that hypermnesia is due to that particular seance as this was the case of the first memorisation experiment with the 1000 French words.

                        Later the experiments showed that such a memorisation takes part on each stage of teaching. The seance was divided into two parts: active and passive. During the active seance the teacher read the whole huge bulk of the text in the foreign language while the students actively followed in the textbook. That was the reason why the seance was called active. The teacher read at a normal speed and occasionally slightly intoned some words without any music or additional instruction to the students. He/she repeated each new word three times. That was because at that time we thought that some repetition was needed for the process of  12 memorisation. Later the experiments showed that memorisation was very strong and so no repetition was needed. Then we introduced vertical reading without repetition of words and phrases. After the active seance when the students actively followed the text came the passive seance. It is called passive because the students did not follow the text actively. They only listened sitting calmly on their chairs. They did not receive any instructions. At a musical background (some Pre-Classical) the teacher read the whole text without the translation in a calm and normal manner. That was the end of the first course day. The next day was dedicated to the elaborations. Then the material that had been taught was elaborated by means of a lot of games and songs.

                        Gradually the methodology took on its final version after hundreds of experiments and thousands of students. The classical explanation of the material, i.e. deciphering, which used to comprise the first stage was replaced by an artistic introduction, i.e. a mutual game of the teacher and the students during which the whole material was taught in a playful manner, through role-plays. In this way the classical art was introduced in the methodology. The second stage, the seance (active), was carried out with selected and previously tested whole musical classical works of Mozart, Beethoven, Haydn, Tchaikovsky, etc. Let me pay tribute to Dr. Gateva who carried out the necessary experiments and suggested introducing the classical art into our work and methodology. The teacher read and intoned in accord with the music like an accompanying instrument. The passive seance was carried out with whole musical Pre-classical works by Bach, Vivaldi, Corelli, etc. On the next day the students sang classical songs. The classes were full of jokes and games. There appeared a fourth stage, that of production, when the students tell interesting stories and have conversations in the foreign language quite by themselves.

                        Putting on the cloak of classical art brought about the great success of the methodology. It became much easier to reach the reserves because it important with suggestopaedia not only what but much more how is being taught in order to reach the hidden reserves of mind. Furthermore, art has made the learning process much more enjoyable. Aesthetics has become particularly important in learning, and thus in life. Classical art now is an integral part of suggestopaedia-desuggestive teaching. Its educational impact has been enhanced and this is the last but not least place where ethics in relationships lie.

                        It is wrong to consider suggestopaedia a methodology of foreign language teaching only. In our experimental schools all the subjects were taught suggestopaedically, e.g. the children learned the Bulgarian alphabet and were able to read 40 words only on the basis of peripheral perceptions without having to put in any effort. They learned Mathematics through operas for children which were specially composed for the purpose. The children liked Mathematics and showed remarkably high grades. The subjects like Geography, History, etc. were acquired very easily, too. The other suggestopaedic methodologies are also subject to a special qualification on the part of the teacher. The results of all the subjects for all ages were reported by both the Ministry of Education at national conferences, and the UNESCO experts whose opinion was published in the American media (find detailed information at the end of the book).[6]

Principles of Suggestopedia

            The principles of the method are derived from observations based on control experiments (Stevick, 1976: 42). The principle of the method are derivied from observation based on control experiments. The first prinsciple is that people are able to learn at rates many times greater that what we commonly assume to be the limits of human performance. The second principles is that learning is global; it involves the entire person. The third principle is that people learn either consciously or unconsciously or both, either rationally or irrationally, or both.

            Suggestion can work well when the learners remove the prior authomatic pattern and open the access to great potential of mental reserve. Without de-suggesting (removing) the pattern, it is hard for suggestion to function. The learners must be assured that they have anti-suggestive barrier. And they have to remove them in order to open the access of the suggestion. The three anti suggestive barriers are critical logical, intuitive- affective, and ethical. The first anti suggestive barrier is critical anti suggestive barrier. This barrier rejects suggestion through reasoning. If the learners think that it is impossible to learn a foreign language as Lozanov believes, the possibility to be successful learners is very slim. This barrier is the conscious critical thinking. The second barrier is intuitive affective barrier. This seems to be emotional barrier. This barrier is believed to come from anything that may produce of a feeling of lack confidence or insecurity. If the learners feel that they will loose their confidence or self esteem, they are likely not to reach the success in learning. The third barrier is ethicall barrier. The learners will reject everything that is not in harmony with the ethical sense they have.

            There are two basic kinds of suggestion in Lozanov method: direct and indirect. Direct suggestion is mean to dealt with conscious processes. The example of it is all activities that occur in direct learning teaching interaction. The indirect suggestion dealt with unconscious processes, they are communication factors outside our conscious awareness such as voice, tone, facial expression, body posture and movement, speech, tempo, rhythm, accent etc. another factor in language learning that can function as indirect suggestion is classroom arrangement, such as décor, lighting, nice level, etc. all kinds of suggestion can reinforce or hinder the processes of language learning. The inputs on these two planes should support each other, rather cancelling each other.

Some principles of this method can be known as follow :

1. Learning is facilitated. In a relaxed, comfortable environment.
2. The teacher attempts to increase her student confidence that they will be successful learners. The more confidence the student feel, the better they will
3. Assuming a new identity enhances students feeling of security and a loose them to be more open. They feel less inhibited since their performance is really that of      different person.
4. The teacher should present and explain the grammar and vocabulary but not dwell on them.
5. Dramatization is particularly valuable, playfully activating the material. Fantasy reduces barriers to learning.
6. Music and movement reinforce the linguistic material. It is desirable that student achieve a state of “infantilization” – having a childlike attitude – so that they will be more open to learning. If they trust the teacher, they will reach this state more
7. In an atmosphere of play the conscious attention of the learners do not focus on linguistic form, but rather on using the language. Learning can be fun.[7]

 

Procedure

                       As with other methods we have examined, there are variants both historical and individual in the actual conduct of Suggestopedia classes. Adaptations such as those we witnessed in Toronto by Jane Bancroft and her colleagues at Scarborough College, University of Toronto, showed a wide and diversified range of techniques unattested to in Loza nov’s writings. We have tried here to characterize a class as described in the Suggestopedia literature while pointing out where the actual classes we have observed varied considerably from the description.

                        Bancroft (‘1972) notes that the four-hour language class has three distinct parts. The first part we might call an oral review section. Previously learned material is used as the basis for discussion by the teacher and twelve students in the class. All participants sit in a circle in their specially designed chairs, and the discussion proceeds like a seminar. This session may involve what are called micro-studies and macro-studies. In micro-studies specific attention is given to grammar, vocabulary, and precise questions and answers. A question from a micro-study might be, “What should one do in a hotel room if the bathroom taps are not working?” In the macro-studies, emphasis is on role playing and widerranging, innovative language constructions. “Describe to someone the Boyana church” (one of Bulgaria’s most well-known medieval churches) would be an example of a request for information from the macrostudies.

                        In the second part of the class new material is presented and discussed. This consists of looking over a new dialogue and its native language translation and discussing any issues of grammar, vocabulary, or content that the teacher feels imporrant or that students are curious about. Bancroft notes that this section is typically conducted in the target language, although student questions or comments will be in whatever language the student feels he or she can handle. Students are led to view the experience of dealing with the new material as interesting and undemanding of any special effort or anxiety. The teacher’s attitude and authority is considered critical to preparing students for success in the learning to come. The pattern of learning and use is noted (i.e., fixation, reproduction, and new creative production), so that students will know what is expected.

                        The third part – the seance or concert session – is the one by which Suggestopedia is best known. Since this constitutes the heart of the method, we will quote Lozanov as to how this session proceeds.

                        At the beginning of the session, all conversation stops for a minute or two, and the teacher listens to the music coming from a tape-recorder. He waits and listens to several passages in order to enter into the mood of the music and then begins to read or recite the new text, his voice modulated in harmony with the musical phrases. The students follow the text in their text books

where each lesson is translated into the mother tongue. Between the first and second part of the concert, there are several minutes of solemn silence . In some cases, even longer pauses can be given to permit the students 10 stir a little. Before the beginning of the second part of the concert, there are again several minutes of silence and some phrases of the music are heard again before the teacher begins to read the text. Now the students close their textbook and listen to teacher’s reading. At the end, the students silently leave the room. They are not told to do any homework on the lesson they have just had except for reading it cursorily once before going to bed and again before getting up in the morning. (Lozanov 1978: 272)[8]

Advantages of Suggestopedia

In using suggestopedia method, there are many advantages that the teachers and students will get. First, by using suggestopedia method, students can lower their affective filter. Suggestopedia classes are held in ordinary rooms with comfortable chairs, a practice that may also help them relaxed. Teacher can do numerous other things to lower the affective filter. Second, students remember best and are most influenced by information coming from an authoritative source, teachers. Third, it refers to the learning from two aspects. They are the conscious aspect and the subconscious one. Students can acquire the aim of teaching instruction from both direct instruction and environment in which the teaching takes place. The last advantage is that suggestopedia encourages the students to apply language more independently, takes more personal responsibility for their own learning and get more confidence.  Peripheral information can also help encourage students to be more experimental, and look to sources other than the teacher for language input. For example, the students can make some sentences using the grammatical structure placed on the classroom’s wall; describe a particular place in an English speaking country by looking at the poster on the wall, etc. When the students are successful in doing such self-activities, they will be more confident.

Disadvantages of Suggestopedia

Although giving many advantages, suggestopedia also has limitation. The first disadvantages is that the limited media that will be used in class. In suggestopedia class, there are many activities that need additional media. For example in concert activity, we need to play music in the class. But the problem is that some schools don’t have media to play music. To solve this problem, as a creative teacher, the teacher can bring their own media such as laptop and mobile phone. The second problem in applying suggestopedia method is the ability of the teacher. There are some activities in suggestopedia that the teacher needs to be expressive. But it will be difficult for inexpressive teacher. Based on that problem, we can make the teacher more expressive by practice. So, the teacher has to be confident and practice a lot .In short, although there are some limitations, we still able to solve it.[9]

 

REFERENCES

https://novaekasari09.wordpress.com/2011/06/12/a-teaching-methodsuggestopedia/           accessed on 2018/03/24 12.20PM

http://ocean.scihub.tw/67bd391c6e7b186ea3b38708ab2c3603/10.1177%4010534512820  1700404.pdf

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0162

https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/suggestopedia accessed on             2018/03/24 01.20PM

http://teflpedia.com/Suggestopedia accessed on 2018/03/27 02.08PM

Dr. Georgi Lozanov Vienna, 2005. Suggestopaedia – Desuggestive Teaching          Communicative Method On The Level Of The Hidden Reserves Of The Human        Mind. Published by Dr. Georgi Lozanov International Centre for Desuggestology,      Vienna, Austria. Page 11 – 12

https://dewkunt.wordpress.com/teaching-english-as-foreign-language-suggestoperia-          methode/ accessed on 2018/03/26 04.15 PM

Richards C. Jack  And Rodgers S. Theodore.1986. Approaches and Methods in Language            Teaching. Cambridge University Press: New York. Page 150-151

https://welovewriting.wordpress.com/2012/05/15/the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-   teaching-english-using-suggestopedia-method/ 2018/03/26 08.16PM

[1] https://novaekasari09.wordpress.com/2011/06/12/a-teaching-methodsuggestopedia/ accessed on 2018/03/24 12.20PM

[2] http://ocean.scihub.tw/67bd391c6e7b186ea3b38708ab2c3603/10.1177%40105345128201700404.pdf

[3] https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0162

[4] https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/suggestopedia accessed on 2018/03/24 01.20PM

[5] http://teflpedia.com/Suggestopedia accessed on 2018/03/27 02.08PM

[6] Dr. Georgi Lozanov Vienna, 2005. Suggestopaedia – Desuggestive Teaching Communicative Method On The Level Of The Hidden Reserves Of The Human Mind. Published by Dr. Georgi Lozanov International Centre for Desuggestology, Vienna, Austria. Page 11 – 12

[7] https://dewkunt.wordpress.com/teaching-english-as-foreign-language-suggestoperia-methode/ accessed on 2018/03/26 04.15 PM

[8] Richards C. Jack  And Rodgers S. Theodore.1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press: New York. Page 150-151

[9] https://welovewriting.wordpress.com/2012/05/15/the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-teaching-english-using-suggestopedia-method/ 2018/03/26 08.16PM

Community Language Learning

Definition Of Community Language Learning

Community Language Learning is sometimes cited as an example of a humanistic approach. Community Language Learning represents the use of Counseling-Learning theory to teach languages.

According to Charles A. Curran Community Language Learning (CLL) is the name of a method developed. The Community Language Learning represents the use of Counseling-learning theory to teach language.

According to Rogers CLL derives its primary insights, and indeed its organizing rationale, from Rogerian counseling. Counseling, as Rogerian see it, consists of one individual (the counselor) assuming in so far as he is able the internal frame of reference [of the client], perceiving the world as that person sees it and communicating something of this empathetic understanding.[1]

According to Brown (1994:58) community language learning is an innovative approach list as one of the designer methods of the spirited seventies. it is certainly unique in that it is one of the first methods to be developed that really focused on the feelings of the students and tried to address effective factors in learning (particularly for adult learners).

     Based on the definitions above can be concluded that community language learning represent the use of Counseling-Learning theory to teach languages. Conselling is a process that consists of one individual (the conselor) and the students that discuss something to get the comprehension about the things that is being discussed.

Principles of Community Language Learning

There are ten principles of the Community Language Learning Method. The principles of community language learning method organized by answering the questions bellow:

1. What are the goals of teachers who use the Community Language Learning method?

Teachers who use Community Language Learning Method is their students to learn how to use the target language communicatively. In addition, teachers want their students to learn about their own learning, to take increasing responsibility for it, and to learn how to learn from one another.

2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?

The teacher’s initial role is primarily that of a counselor. This does not mean that the teacher is a therapist, or that the teacher does no teaching. Rather, it means that the teacher recognize how threatening a new learning situation can be adult learners, so he skillfully understand and supports his students in their struggle to master the target language.

3. What are some characteristics of the teaching or learning process?

In a beginning class, students typically have a conversation using their native language. The teacher helps them express what they want to say by giving them the target language translation in chunks. The transcription of the conversation becomes a “text” with which students work.

4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of students-students interaction?

The nature of student-teacher interaction in the community Language Learning Method changes within the lesson and over time. Sometimes the students are aggressive, as when they are having conversation. At this time, the teacher facilitates their ability to express themselves in the target language.

5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

Responding to the students feelings is considered very important in having a con Counseling-Learning. One regular activity is inviting students to comment on how they feel while the teacher`s understand. By showing students he understand how they feel, the teacher can help them overcome negative feelings that might otherwise block their learning.

6. How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?

Language is for communication. The focus shifts from grammar and sentence formation to a sharing and belonging between person. Culture is integrated with language.

7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?

In the early stages, typically the students generate the material since they decide what they want to be able to say in the target language. Later on the teacher might also work with published textbooks. Particular grammar points, pronunciation patterns, and vocabulary are worked with, based on the language the students have generated. The most important skills are speaking and understand the language.

8. What is the role of the students’ native language?

Students` security initially enhanced by using their native language, where possible, literal native language equivalents are given to the target language word that have been transcribed. This makes their meaning clear and allows students to combine the target language words in the different ways new sentences.

9. How is evaluation accomplished?

Evaluation is conducted should be in keeping with the principles of the method. If, for example, the school requires that the students take a text at the end of a course, then the teacher would see to it that the students are adequately prepared for taking it. finally, it is likely the teachers would encourage their students to self-evaluate-to look at their own learning to become aware of their own progress.

10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Teachers should work with what the learner has produced in a non-threatening way. One of the  way of doing this is for the teacher to repeat correctly what the student has said incorrectly, without calling further attention to the error.[2]  (MATERI 4 TEFL)

Procedure of Communication Language Learning

1. Informal greetings and self-introductions were made.

In the first meeting the teacher have to introduce their self in informal ways. In order to close with the students and make all of the students comfortable and feel enjoy in the learning process. This process will make the students know the teacher well. This process is really crucial because this is the first impression of the students to the teacher. That first impression is the first step to be close with the students, in this process the teacher have to impress the students in order to make the students amaze on the teacher`s personality and character. As a result of that process students will have a big interest on learning the subject. That interest on the course will make the students easily understand the material that is delivered by the teacher.

2. The teacher made a statement of the goals and guidelines for the course.

The teacher made a statement of the goals and guidelines for the course is one of the important things in teaching. Making a statement of the goals and guidelines for the course will help the students to brain stroming about the course. That will help the students can imagine the course that will be delivered. That will make the students interest on the students explanation and make the students curious about the teacher`s explanation.

3. A conversation session in the foreign language took place.

The students are using the foreign language in this case is English, to have a conversation in the class. The teacher has to build this habit in order to make students comfortable and confident to use English in their daily activities.

4. Students then participated in a reflection period, in which their asked to express their feelings about the previous experience with total frankness.

The teacher has to motivate the students to speak up in the class on the reflection period. The teacher has to motivate the students to be honest to deliver the students opinion about their experience. The teacher guided the students to express their feeling honestly.

5. Students were encouraged to ask questions about any of the above.

Teachers have to encourage the students to have a big curious. The teacher need to encourage the students to ask whatever they didn`t know from that material. The process is very important for the students to know how far they understand the materials and how far their comprehension.

6. Students were encouraged to copy sentences from the board with notes on meaning and usage. This became their “textbook” for home study.

The teachers have to encourage the students to have a note because the note is very important. The note can be used as an aid for the students to learn in their house.[3]

Characteristic of Community Language Learning

1. Students typically have a conversation using their native language.
2. The teacher helps them express what they want to say by giving them the target language translation.
3. These words are recorded, and when they are replayed, it sounds like a fairly fluid conversation.
4. Later, a transcript is made of the conversation, and native language equivalents are written beneath the target language words.
5. The transcription of the conversation becomes a ‘text’ with which students work.
6. Various activities are conducted (for example, examination of a grammar point, working on pronunciation of a particular phrase, or creating new sentences with words from the transcript) that allow students to further explore the language they have generated.
7. During the course of the lesson, students are invited to say how they feel, and in return the teacher understands them.

Advantages and disadvantages of community language learning[4]

Advantages:

1. The counselor allows the learners to determine type of conversation and to analyze the language inductively.
2. The students centered natured of the method can provide extrinsic motivation and capitalized an intrinsic motivation.

Disadvantages:

1. The counselor-teacher can become to nondirective. Students often need direction.
2. Translation is an intricate and difficult task. The success of the method relies largely on the translation expertise of the counselor.

REFFERENCE

JACK C. RICHARDS AND THEODORE S. RODGERS.Approaches and methods in language teaching.New York: Cambridge University Press. 1986.

DIANE LARSEN-FREEMAN.Techniques And Principles In Language Teaching.New York: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.

1. DOUGLAS BROWN.TEACHING by PRINCIPLES An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.

JACK C. RICHARDS AND THEODORE S. RODGERS.Approaches and methods in language teaching.New York: Cambridge University Press.1986

[1]JACK C. RICHARDS AND THEODORE S. RODGERS, Approaches and methods in language teaching, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), Page 113

[2] DIANE LARSEN-FREEMAN, Techniques And Principles In Language Teaching, (New York: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS), page 98-102

[3] JACK C. RICHARDS AND THEODORE S. RODGERS, Approaches and methods in language teaching, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), page 113

[4] H. DOUGLAS BROWN, TEACHING by PRINCIPLES An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, page 26-27

The Audio-Lingual Method

Definition

The audio-lingual method, like the direct method we have just examined, has a goal very different from that of the grammar translation method. The audio-lingual method was development in the united states during world war II. At the time there was a need for people to learn foreign language rapidly for military purposes. As we have seen, the grammar-translation method did not prepare people to use target language. While communication in the target language was the goal of the direct method, there were at the time exciting new ideas about language and learning emanating from disciplines of descriptive linguistics and behavioral psychology. These ideas led to the development of the audio-lingual method. Same of the principles are similar to these of the direct method, but many are different, having been based upon conception of language and learning from these two disciplines.

      Actually the teacher and the student have worked hard in study in the class. The student have listened to and spoken only English for the period. The teacher is tired from all her action, but she is pleased for she feels the lesson went well. The students has learned the lines of the dialog and to respond without hesitation to her cues in the drill pattern

The Principles of Audio-lingual method

          Principally, the audio-lingual method is focused on repetition drill, dialog memorization, grammar game, transformation drill, complete the dialog, backward build-up(expansion) drill.

          There are some expert stated about the audio-lingual method, according to Diane larsen-freeman on her book `Technique and principles in Language Teaching `the principles of audio-lingual method are organized by answering below.

1. What are the goals of teachers who use the Audio-Lingual Method?

Teachers want their student to be able to use the target language communicatively. In order to do this, they believe students need to overlearn the target language, to learn to use it automatically without stopping to think. Their students achieve this by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language

2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the student?

The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behavior of her students. She also is responsible for providing her students with a good model for imitation. Students are imitators of the teacher’s model or the tapes she supplies of model speakers. They follow the teacher’s directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as possible.

3. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogs. The dialog are learned through imitation and repetition. Drills (such as repetition, backward build-up, chain, substitution, transformation, and question-and-answer) are conducted based upon the patterns present in the dialog. Student’s successful responses are positively reinforced. Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided. Culture information is contextualized in the dialogs or presented by the teacher. Students reading and written work is based upon the oral work they did earlier.

4. What is nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?

There is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when students take different roles in dialogs, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most of the interaction is between teacher and student and is initiated by the teacher.

5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

There are no principles of the method that relate to this area.

6. How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?

The viewed language in the Audio-lingual method has been influenced by descriptive linguists. Every language is seen as having its own unique system. The system is comprised of several different levels phonological, morphological, and syntactic. Each level has its own distinctive patterns.Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-Lingual Method. The level of complexity of the speech is graded, however, so that beginning students are presented with only simple forms.Culture consist of the everyday behavior and lifestyle of the target language speakers.

7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?

The structures of the language are emphasized over all the other areas. The syllabus is typically a structural one, with the structures for any particular unit included in the new dialog. Vocabulary is also contextualized within the dialog. It is, however, limited since the emphasized is placed on the acquisition of the patterns of the language.

8. The natural order of skills presentation is adhered to: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The oral/aural skills receive most of the attention. Pronunciation is taught from the beginning, often by students working in language laboratories on discriminating between members of minimal pairs.
9. What is the role of the students’ native language?

The habits of the students’ native language are thought to interfere with the students’ attempts to master the target language. therefore, the target language is used in the classroom, not the students’ native language and the target language will reveal  where a teacher should expect the most interference.

10. How is evaluation accomplished?

The answer to this question is not obvious because we didn’t actually observe the students in this class taking a formal test. If we had, we would have seen that itwas discrete-point nature, that is, each questions on the test would focus on only  one point of the language at a time. Students might be asked to distinguish between words in a minimal pair, for example, or to supply an appropriate  verb form in a sentence.

11. How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Student errors are to be avoided if at all possible through the teacher’s awareness of where the student will have difficulty and restriction of what they are taught to say.[1]

Procedures of Audio-lingual Method

          Since Audio-lingual is primarily an oral approach to language teaching, it is not surprising that the process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction. The focus of instruction is on immediate and accurate speech; there is little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the language. As far as possible, the target language is used as the medium of instruction, and translation or use of the native tongue is discouraged. Classes of ten or less are considered optimal, although larger classes are often the norm. Brooks lists the following procedures the teacher should adopt in using the Audio-lingual Method:

The modeling of all learning by the teacher:

1. The subordination of the mother tongue to the second language by rendering English inactive while the new language is being learned.
2. The early and continued training of the ear and tongue without recourse to graphic symbols.
3. The learning of structure through the practice of patterns of sound, order, and form, rather than by explanation.
4. The gradual substitution of graphic symbol for sounds after sounds is thoroughly known.
5. The summarizing of the main principles of structure for the student’s use when the structures are already familiar, especially when they differ from those of the mother tongue.
6. The shortening of the time span between a performance and pronouncement of its rightness or wrongness, without interrupting the response. This enhances the factor of reinforcement in learning.
7. The minimizing of vocabulary only in context.[2]

          Through this step by step procedure, the teacher is able to give the students help in producing the troublesome line. Having worked on the line in small pieces, the students are also able to take not of where each word or phrase begins and ends in the sentence.

          After the students have repeated the dialog several times, the teacher gives them a chance to adopt the role of Bill while she says Sally’s lines. Before the class actually says each line, the teacher models it. In effect, the class is experiencing a repetition drill where the task is to listen carefully and attract to mimic the teacher’s model as accurately as possible.

          Next the class and the teacher switch roles in order to practice a little more, the teacher saying Bill’s lines and the class saying Sally’s. Then the teacher divides the class in half so that each half gets to try to say on their own either Bill’s or Sally’s lines. The teacher stops the students from time to time when she feels they are straying too far from the model, and once again provides a model, which she has them attempt to copy. To further practice the lines of this dialog, the teacher has all the boys in the class take Bill’s part and all the girls take Sally’s.

          She then initiates a chain drill with four of the lines from the dialog. A chain drill gives students an opportunity to says the lines individually. The teacher listens and can tell which students are struggling and will need more practice. A chain drill also lets students use the expressions in communication with someone else, even though the communication is very limited. The teacher addresses the students nearest her with,” Good morning, Jose.” He in turn responds, “Good morning teacher.” She says, “How are you?” Jose answers, “Fine, thanks. And you?” the teacher replies, “Fine.” He understands thought. The teacher’s gestures that he is to turn to the student sitting besides him and greet her. That student, in turn, says her lines in reply to him. When she has finished, she greets the student on the other side of her. This chain continues until all of the students have a chance to ask and answer the questions. The last student directs the greeting to the teacher.

          Finally, the teacher selects two students to perform the entire dialog or the rest of the class. When they are finished, two others do the same. Not everyone has a chance to says the dialog in a pair today, but perhaps they will sometime this week.

          The teacher moves next to the second major phase of the lesson. She continues to drill the students with language from the dialog, but these drills require more than simple repetition. The first drill the teacher leads is a single-slot substitution drill in which the students will repeat a sentence from the dialog  and replace a word or phrase the teacher gives them. This word or phrase is called the cue.

          The teacher begins by reciting a line from the dialog, “I am going to the post office.” Following this she shows the students a picture of a bank and says the phrase, “the bank.” She pauses, then says, “I am going to the bank.”

          From her example the students realize that they are supposed to take the cue phrase (“the bank”), which the teacher supplies, and put it into its proper place in the sentence.

Now she gives them their first cue phrase, “The drugstore.” Together the students respond, “I am going to the drugstore.” The teacher smiles. “Very good!” she exclaims. The teacher cues, “The park.” The students chorus, “i am going to the park.”

          Other cues she offers in turn are “the cafe,” “the supermarket,” “the bus station,” “the football field,” and “the library.” Each cue is accompanied by a picture as before. After the students have gone through the drill sequence three times, the teacher no longer provides a spoken cue phrase. Instead she simply shows the pictures one at a time, and the students repeat the entire sentence putting the name of the place in the picture in the appropriate slot in the sentence.

          A similar procedure is followed for another sentence in the dialog, ‘How are you?’ The subject pronouns ‘he,’ ‘she,’ ‘they,’ and ‘you’ are used as cue words. This substitution drill is slightly more difficult for the students since they have to change the form of the verb ‘be’ to ‘is’ or ‘are,’ depending on which subject pronoun the teacher gives them. The students are apparently familiar with the subject pronouns since the teacher is not using any pictures. Instead, after going through the drill a few times supplying oral cues, the teacher points to a boy in the class and the students understand they are use the pronoun ‘he’ in the sentence. They chorus, ‘How is he?’ ‘Good!’ says the teacher. She points to a girl and waits for the class’s response, then points to other students to elicit the use of ‘they.’

          Finally, the teacher increases the complexity of the task by leading the student in multiple-slot substitution drill. This is essentially the same type of drill as the single-slot the teacher just used. However with this  where it fits into the sentence. The students still listen to only one cue from the teacher. Then they must make a decision concerning where the cue word or phrase belongs in a sentence also supplied by the teacher. The teacher in this class start off by having the students repeat the original sentence from the dialog, ‘I am going to the post office.’ Then she gives them the cue ‘she.’ The students understand and produce, ‘She is going to the post office.’ The next cue the teacher offers is ‘to the park.’ The students hesitate at first then they respond by correctly producing, ‘she is going to the park.’ She continues in this manner, sometimes providing a subject pronoun, other times naming a location.

          The substitution drills are followed by a transformation drill. This type of drill asks students to change one type of sentence into a passive, for example. In this class, the teacher uses the substitution drill that requires the students to change a statement into a yes/no question. The teacher offers an example, ‘I saying, “She is going to the post office.” You make a question by saying, “Is she going to the post office?”

          The teacher models two more examples of this transformation, then asks, ‘does everyone understand? Ok, let’s begin. “They are going to the bank,” ‘The class replies in turn, ‘Are they going to the bank?’ They transform approximately fifteen of these patterns, and then the teacher decides they are ready to move on to a question and answer drill.

          The teacher holds up one of the pictures she used earlier, the picture of a football field, and asks the class, ‘Are you going to the football field?’ she answers her own question, ‘Yes, I’m going to the football field.’ She poses the next question while holding up a picture of a park, ‘Are you going to the park?’ And again answers herself, ‘Yes, I’m going to the park.’ the holds up a third picture, the one of the library. She poses a question to the class, ‘Are you going to the library?’ They respond together, ‘Yes, i am going to the library.’

          ‘Very good,’ the teacher says. Through her actions and examples, the students have learned that they are to answer the questions following the pattern she has modeled. The teacher drills them with this pattern for the next few minutes. Since the students can handle it, she poses the question to selected individuals rapidly, one after another. The students are expected to respond very quickly, without pausing.

          The students are able to keep up the pace, so the teacher moves on to the next step. She again shows the class one of the pictures, a supermarket this time. She asks, ‘Are you going to the bus station?’ She answers her own question, ‘No, I’m going to the supermarket.’

          The students understand that they are required to look at the picture and listen to the question and answer negatively if the place in the question is not the same as what they see in the picture. ‘Are you going to bus station?’ the teacher asks while holding up a picture of a cafe. ‘no, I am going to the cafe, ‘the class answers.

          ‘Very good!’ exclaims the teacher. After posing a few more questions which require negative answers, the teacher produces the pictures of the post office and asks, ‘are you going to post office?’ the students hesitate a moment and then chorus, ‘Yes, I’m going to the post office.’

‘Good,’ comments the teacher. She works a little longer on this question and answer drill, sometimes providing her students with situations the require a negative answer and sometimes encouragement to each student. She holds up pictures and poses questions one right after another, but the students seem to have no trouble keeping up with her. The only time she changes the rhythm is when a student seriously mispronounces a word. When this occurs she restates the word and works briefly with the student until his pronunciation is closer to her own.

          For the final few minutes on the class, the teacher returns to the dialog with which she began the lesson. She repeats it once, then has the half of the class to her left do Bill’s lines and the half of the class to her right do Sally’s. This time there is no hesitation at all. The teacher smiles, ‘Very good. Class dismissed.’

          The lesson ends for the day. Both the teacher and the students have worked hard. The students have listened to and spoken only English for the period. The teacher is tired from all her action, but she is pleased for she feels the lesson has gone well. The students have learned the lines of the dialog and to respond without hesitation to her cues in the drill pattern.[3]

Characteristic of Audio-lingual Method

          The characteristics of ALM (Audio-lingual Method) may be summed up in following list (adapted from Prator & Celce Murcia 1979):

1. New material is presented in dialogue form.
2. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrase, and over learning.
3. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at atime.
4. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
5. There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than by deductive explanation.
6. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
7. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
8. Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
9. Very little use of the mother tongue by teacher is permitted.
10. Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
11. There is a great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.
12. There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.[4]

          Learning Audio-lingual Method (ALM) is basically about conversation and drills. Audio-lingual Method (ALM) has some characteristics, first of all is new material that give to the students about conversation to memorize. Characteristics of Audio-lingual Method (ALM) not only about conversation but also the students should repeat the conversation at a time. Moreover the teacher has a great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances in conversation.

Advantage And Disadvantages Of The Audio-Lingual Method

1. Advantages

The audio-lingual Method, as any other approach, has made some good contributions to the educational field. Inspire of various refutations made against this method, it also has certain advantages that worth to be analyzed and taken into account for the purposes of this work.

• The Audio-lingual Method has been based on a real psychological approach: Behaviorism

If a method is related to a serious and reliable psychological approach with fundaments on pedagogy, it is a good method. All these characteristics have made audio-lingual method become an adequate and truthful tool with objective is to teach through certain kinds of proved processes.

• The native language is not used to teach a foreign language

In this same way we have learnt our native language, teachers should try to remember students are inside an environment where they deal with the new language and listen to it during the whole class hour. As a result of that, students will not have another option but use the foreign language and it will make them feel more comfortable when saying things in English.

• No translation is permitted to teach vocabulary

The Audio-lingual Method states that we must not use translation as an activity to teach vocabulary;  we should create and use new ways to explain an unknown word. We can use realia, flashcards, gestures, mimicry, synonyms, and antonyms to explain a word definition or meaning. Then push their students to understand a meaning inside the context or to use the dictionary.

• Students are encouraged to use the foreign language and to speak

Since the native language can not be used, students must have to use the foreign language to express any idea they have. If a teacher perseveres with that, they can get students not to feel frightened or shy when using some words or even complete phrases to express some ideas or opinions. that English has. Moreover, it demands the teacher to be a master in the language so he can teach it correctly.

• Through teacher´s modeling, students learn pronunciation, intonation and stress.

 As the teacher models word stress, students learn the correct sounds of the different terms. Here the teacher must use repetition, choral work, and a set of words to practice the new vocabulary. It is important that articulation has to be taken into account when those kinds of pronunciation activities are used in the class because in Spanish speakers do not have some sounds.

• Teaching grammatical patterns

 This methodology is centered on teaching structures and patterns. It will be something good because many times we know people who speak English but they do not write very well. We can not deny speaking a language is the final result of foreign language courses, but writing is communication too. And if students do not interiorize some grammar, they can not make their thoughts or opinions understandable to the receptor of the message. Students must create a correct mental pattern then. It is positive to let students express their ideas in an incomplete way sometimes, but teachers also have to correct students when they are in a more advanced level, as their senior year of high school, so they can express themselves in a real conversation without the teacher´s interpretation.

• The teachers creativity can be used to give positive reinforcement

As it was said before, the Audio-lingual Method is based on operant behaviorism where reinforcement plays a very important part in the teaching learning process. According to it, teachers can create a system of rewards for their own students. We are not suggesting that the teacher gives some students a prize and a punishment to others. The idea is to motivate students to do their best and plan some interesting activities that all the class can enjoy. For example, a movie at the end of a unit, some kind of  festival, a small custom party, a pet day, a love day, etc. These are simply ideas tahat the teacher can use to reinforce his students efforts. In the end, we know those kinds of activities are positive reinforcement from the operant behaviorism´s point of view,  but in a different way. It will depend on the teacher´s creativity and commitment.

2. Disadvantages

          Despite of  the fact that the Audio-lingual Method created a revolution in the area of teaching foreign languages during 60`s, it did not use translation to teach a target language. It has also received lots of criticism. The method is based on mechanical learning and there is no space for mistakes. As a result of that mechanical learning, it becomes senseless for students. They complete the tasks because they have to do that, not because they are interested in learning.

          James Lee and Bill Van Patten said, “ What the ALM instructor did not usually provide was the opportunity for students to use the language in a meaningful or communicative way, one involving the exchange of message. Nothing that happened in an ALM classroom could be constructed as an exchange of information because output (the actual production of language) was severely restricted. In fact, many thought that students did not need to know what they were saying; they need to know only that what they were saying was correct.” 9 The ALM methodology does not let students create a meaningful environment to learn the topic or structures that are going to be presented to them. The exercises do not represent real facts or at least something that they can be interested in, so they do not pay the attention. They should to understand what is being said.  As it was seen above, ALM techniques are repetition, substitution, and memorization. They do not permit students interact with their peers really; they have to follow a pattern written on the board. Students´ real life, experiences or interests are not important to teach them the English class. Then it can be said that learning a foreign language becomes sterile; students can not react in front of real situations, such as giving some directions or talking with a foreigner when they have the opportunity. The ALM methodology does not realize students understand the structure or the meaning of it; the only thing that is measured is how well or badly students can follow a structure and repeat it with the adequate tone of voice, showing they are capable to substitute some words inside a sentence.[5]

REFERENCES

Brown, H.Douglas Teaching by Principles An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. America: EDISI.2

Gabriela Ochoa Fajardo, 2011. Journal: “The Audio-lingual Method and Meaningful Activities To Improve The Productive Skills”,Universidad de Cuenca

Larsen-freeman, Diane. 1986. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching:New York: Oxford University Press

Larsen Freeman, Diane. 2000.Techniques and principles of language teaching. .New York: Oxford University Press

Richards, Jack C. Theodore S. Rodgers, 1986. Approaches and Methods in a Language Teaching. America: Cambridge University Press

             [1]Diane Larsen-freeman, Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986),Page 43-45.

             [2]Jack C. Richards, Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in a Language Teaching, (America: Cambridge University Prees, 1986). Page. 58

             [3]Diane Larsen Freeman, Techniques and principles of language teaching, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000). Page.43-45

             [4]H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy,(America: EDISI.2).Page.23

[5]Gabriela Ochoa Fajardo, Journal: “The Audio-lingual Method and Meaningful Activities To Improve The Productive Skills”, ( Universidad de Cuenca:2011).Page.22-25

Direct Method

Definition of Direct Method

          The German scholar F. Franke wrote on the psychological principles of direct association between forms and meanings in the target language (1884) and provided a theoretical justification for a monolingual approach to teaching. According to Franke a language could be best taught by using it actively in the classroom. Rather than using analytical procedures that focus on explanation of grammar rules in classroom teaching, teachers must encourage direct and spontaneous use of the foreign language in the classroom.

          According to Fries’s. He states that “the direct method is a method of teaching a foreign language, especially a modern language through conversation, discussion, and reading in the language it self, without the use of the pupil’s language, translation and without the study of the formal grammar.”[1]

          According to Howatt :”‘The vocabulary in the Direct Method is to be simple and familiar; the first few lessons of the Berlitz English course, for example, were based on objects in the classroom, clothing etc. followed by verb ‘to be’ and common adjectives like big, small, thin, thick etc.’

          According to Thornbury this method was developed at the end of the nineteenth century and challenged the views on grammar teaching held by the Grammar-Translation method .

          According to Richards & Rodgers, direct method In his language school in Boston in the late 1860s his method became known as the Natural Method.[2]

One of the best known of its popularizers was Charles Berlitz (who never used the term Direct Method and choose instead to call his method the Berlitz method). Almost any method can succeed when clients are willing to pay high prices for small classes, individual attention, and intensive study. The Direct Method did not take well in public education, where the countraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background made such a method difficult to use. Moreover, the Direct Method was criticized for its weak theoretical foundations. Its success may have been more a factor of the skiil and personality of the teacher  than of the methodology itself.[3]

            In our opinion Direct method (berlitz method) is receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be connected directly with the target language, without going through the process of translating into the students native language.

The principles of Direct Method

          In his The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages, Francois Gouin (1880), described a painful set of experiences that finally led to his insights about language teaching. Having decided in midlife to learn German, he took up residency in Hamburg for one year. But rather than attempting to converse with the natives, he engaged in a rather bizarre sequence of attempts to “master” the language. Upon arrival in Hamburg he felt he should memorize a German grammar immediately. A generation 1ater,partly dirough the efforts of visionaries Like Maximilian Berlitz, applied linguists finally established the credibility of such approaches in what became known as the Direct Method.

          The basic premise of Berlitz’s method was that second language learning should be more like first language learning: tots of active oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules. Richards and Rodgers sum-marized the principles of the Direct Method:

          Therefore,the principles of direct method is very important when we teach the student with using direct method,we can apply the principles of direct method through combination of ideas,visuals or daily activities experienced by the students.

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language. It means that language learners learn the target language in the classroom most of the time.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and .sentences were taught.It means that only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught during the initial phase; grammar, reading and writing are introduced in intermediate phase. Those become the base of the syllabus for this method.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.It means that The teacher presents students with many examples to show how the concept of Grammar works, without giving any long explanation about how the concept is used. The students are expected to notice how the concept is to be used and determine the grammar rule.
5. New teaching points were introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures, abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized. It means that these cases are essential.[4]

In our opinion the principles of direct method It means that the teachers always give the new materials, such as vocabulary. The students can develop their ability in the class.The principles of the Direct Method kept developing from year to year. There was always some effort to systemize the teaching of language and the method was also combined with other traditional methods. One of examples of this method is that teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.[5]

The Procedure Of Direct Method.

          As stated earlier, language teaching presented through the direct method may take different forms. No standardized procedure characterizes the method. Different people may develop their own procedures as long as the procedures are based on the principles of the method. Nowdays, there is not much literature related to the method even though still many people use techniques that can be classified under the principles of the method in teahing another language in the classroom. The principle procedure is that language is first introduced through the ear, and then reinforced through the eye and hand by reading and writing. The following procedure is adapted from Larsen-Freeman.

1. The students are called on one by one and they read the text loudly.
2. After the students finish reading the passage, they are asked in the target language if they have questions.
3. The teacher answers the students’ question in the target language.
4. The teacher works with the students on the pronunciation
5. The teacher gives question to the students and the questions and statements are about the students in the classroom.
6. The student make up their own questions and statements and direct them to other students in the classroom.
7. The teacher instructs the students to turn to an exercise in the lesson which asks them to fill in the blanks.
8. The students read a sentence out loud and supply the missing word as they are reading.
9. The teacher asks the students to take out their notebooks and he/she gives them a dictation; the passage is about the topic that has been discussed.

          Another way of teaching a language through the direct method is also suggested by Titone (cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 12). This way is actually not a procedure but more as a set of techniques suggested by Berlitz, one of the American reformers who attempted to build a language teaching methodology based on the direct method. These techniques are still popular among language teachers even though these techniques are not arranged procedurally.

1. Never translate: demonstrate
2. Never explain: act
3. Never make speech: ask questions
4. Never imitate mistake: correct
5. Never speak with single words: use sentences
6. Never speak too much: make students speak much
7. Never speak the book: use your lesson plan
8. Never jump around: follow your plan
9. Never go too fast: keep the pace of the student
10. Never speak too slowly: speak normally
11. Never speak too quickly: speak naturally
12. Never speak too loudly: speak naturally
13. Never be impatient: take it easy

          As stated earlier that there is no fixed procedure of the direct method. This causes confusion among language teachers; language teachers may argue that they have used the direct method in the class even though they may not have used it in a real sense. Refering to the concepts of approach, method and technique introduced by anthony, which has been discussed in chapter one (cited in Richards and Rodgers, probably, the direct method is not real method since there is no overall plan or language teaching. The method only fefers to assumptions about language and language learning, and some techniques that have been developed from the assumptions. It is understandable since the method had been born long before the concept of method itself was introduced in 1963.

          The birth of the direct method really contributed a great deal of improvement in teaching another language in the word. Because of the method language teaching gradually has swung from the teaching of grammar to teaching to communicate in the target language. The direct method is believed to be the first method that encourages language teachers to teach a second/foreign language by modeling first language learning. In this method grammar is taught inductively with no explanations of grammar rules, which is really an improvement in language teaching.

          In our opinion Although the teacher usually using or developing their own procedures, provided the procedure that used remain suitable with the principles of direct method.One of things that become the basis of the language teaching procedure by using direct method is:first language introduced through the ear,then through the eyes,and the last is by reading and writing.

Characteristic of Direct Method

The characteristic of direct method there are:

1. The direct method of teaching foreign languages.
2. Sometimes called the natural method.
3. Refrains from using the learners native languages.
4. Uses only the target language.
5. It was established in germany and france around 1990
6. Teaching vocabulary through pantomiming,real-life objects and other visual materials.
7. Teaching grammar by using an inductive approach(i.e.having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language).
8. Centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation).
9. Focus on question-answer patterns.
10. Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language.
11. Only everyday vocabulary and sentence are taught during the initial phase;grammar,reading and writting are introduced n intermediate phase.
12. Oral communication skills are built up in the carefully graded progression organized exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
13. Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
14. Students should be speaking at least 80% of the time during the lesson.
15. Students are taught from inseption to ask question as well as answer them.[6]

            In our opinion about the procedure of direct method is teachers using this method force students to understand the meaning target language directly,so when the teacher introduces word or phrase of the target language, the teacher demonstrate the meaning through the use of reality,a picture or a mime,a teacher should not perceive it directly into the native language students.

Advantage and disadvantage of Direct Method

1. Advantage of Direct Method

Clearly the Direct Method is a shift away from the Grammar Translation Method. One of its positive points is that it promises to teach the language and Not about the language. More advantages can be listed as follows:

1. It is a natural method. It teaches the second language in the same way as one learns one’s mother tongue. The language is taught through demonstration and conversation in context. Pupils, therefore, acquire fluency in speech. They are quick at understanding spoken English. They can converse in English with felicity and ease.
2. There is no gap between active and passive vocabulary. This method does not differentiate between active and passive vocabularies. According to this method whatever is required for understanding through English is also required for expressing through it. If English is taught through the mother tongue, the gulf between the active and passive vocabularies is widened. The learner acquires more of passive vocabulary because he concentrates on understanding English rather than expressing through it.
3. This method is based on sound principles of education. It believes in introducing the particular before general, concrete before abstract and practice before theory.
4. According to Macnee, “It is the quickest way of getting started”.
5. It makes the learning of English interesting and lively by establishing direct bond between a word and its meaning.
6. It is an activity method facilitating alertness and participation of the pupils.
7. According to Macnee, “It is the quickest way of getting started”. In a few months over 500 of the commonest English words can be learnt and used in sentences. This serves as a strong foundation of further learning.
8. Due to application of the Direct Method, students are able to understand what they learn, think about it and then express their own ideas in correct English about what they have read and learnt.
9. Psychologically it is a sound method as it proceeds from the concrete to the abstract.
10. This method can be usefully employed from the lowest to the highest class.
11. Through this method, fluency of speech, good pronunciation and power of expression are properly developed.

Direct method is very specific learning target,using diect method students can easily understand any given material,direct method has many advantages for example:students can immediately express their own ideas of what they have learned.this method is good for teaching specific facts and basics skills,teachers can also measure the extent of english student’s skills through this direct method.

2. The Disadvantages

   Major fallacy of Direct Method is the belief that second language can be learned in the same way as the first languageis acquired.Second language learning is a determined process, whereas, the learning of the first language is the natural one, so learning of the both cannot be considered on the same lines and on the same principles.The direct methods does not rules out the teaching of grammar instead it stresses upon the inductive teaching of grammar.Some key disadvantages of this method as are under;

1. There are many words that cannot be interpreted directly in second language and much time and are wasted in making attempts for this purpose.
2. This method assumes that the auditory appeal is stronger than the visual, but it has been experienced that many of the learners learn more with their oralaural sense like ears and tongue.
3. This methods ignores systematic written work and reading activities and sufficient attention is not paid to reading and writing.
   This method does not hold well in higher classes
4. There are many abstract words which cannot be interpreted directly in English and much time and energy are wasted in making attempts for the purpose.
5. This method is based on the principles that auditory appeal is stronger that visual. But there are children who learn more with visual than with their oral- aural sense like ears and tongue.
6. The method ignores systematic written work and reading activities and sufficient attention is not paid to reading and writing.
7. Since in this method, grammar is closely bound up with the reader, difficulty is experienced in providing readers of such kind
8. There is dearth of teachers trained and interested in teaching English in this method.
9. This method may not hold well in higher classes where the Translation Method is found suitable.
10. In larger classes, this method is not properly applied and teaching in this method does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students in large classes[7].

In our opinion this method prefers learning through heaaring rather than vision,whereas many students prefer visual learning.This method also can’t be used in a larger class,because this method is ony able to meets the needs in smaller classes.In addition this method also requires more time in learning because it should give more attention to each students,so that it can hinder the development of teacher creativity.

REFERENCES

Abdullah sayeh,2013. A Contrastive Study of the Grammar Translation and the Direct Methods of Teaching. 3rd International Conference on Business, Economics,Management and Behavioral Sciences. ICBEMBS. 2013.

2001. Douglas Brown, 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. San Franscisco State University.

Jack C. Richardsaand Theodore S. Rodgers,1986.Approacnes and Methods in Language Teaching , Cambridge Language Teaching Library.

Kamhuber  philipp,2010. Comparison of Grammar in Austrian and Spanish English Language Teaching Textbooks.Universitat Wien.

Larsen diane.2000. Using The Direct Method In Teaching To Improve Students’ Speaking Skill At Purikids Language Course.University Of Murcia.

Mahapatra bisnawath, 2014.direct Method And L2 Learning The ReforMovement.Department of english khatra adibasi mahavidyalaya,katra,west bengal. Robert J. Dipietro. 1987. Strategic Interaction: Learning Languages through Scenarios. New York: Cambridge University Press.

             [1]Mahapatra bisnawath, direct method and L2 learning the reform movement, (Department of english khatra adibasi mahavidyalaya,katra,west bengal, 2014). pages.110

            [2] Kamhuber  philipp, Comparison of  Grammar in Austrian and Spanish English Language Teaching Textbooks, (universitat wie, 2010). Pages. 13

             [3] H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. (San Franscisco State University, 2001). pages.21-22.

[4] Jack C. Richards And Theodore S. Rodgers,.Approacnes and Methods in Language Teaching , (Cambridge Language Teaching Library, 1986). Pages.9-10

[5] Robert J. Dipietro, Strategic Interaction: Learning Languages through Scenarios. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Pages.62

             [6] Larsen diane, using the direct method in teaching to improve students’ speaking skill at purikids language course, (University Of Murcia2000). pages 11

             [7] Abdullah sayeh, A Contrastive Study of the Grammar Translation and the Direct Methods of Teaching. 3rd (International Conference on Business, Economics, Management and Behavioral Sciences ICBEMBS, 2013).pages  127-128

Approach, Strategy, Method and Technique

Definition of Approach, Strategy, Method and Technique 

1. Approach

Approach is the way in which you will approach the piece of literature you are teaching.  You may center on the diction, or the theme, or the structure, or the romantic (or modern, etc.) nature of the piece; whatever you choose to teach.  Approach is what you are going to teach.

• An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of subject matter to be taught.[1]
• An approach according to Anthony, was a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching.[2]
• Edward Anthony, approach that is more emphasis on strategy and planning approach. The approach can also be interpreted as a starting point in implementing learning because the chosen approach can help us in achieving the learning objectives.
• Richards & Rodgers, Approach is a theory of the nature of language b. A theory of the nature of language learning Design.
• According to Mackey approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified.

From the explanation above, we can conclude that Strategy is the determination of how achieve goals or targets with policies and main plans that have been designed  in such away .

2. Strategy

Strategy is a term that comes from the Greek strategia, meaning “gen-eralship.” In the military, strategy often refers to maneuvering troops into position before the enemy is actually engaged.

Some definitions of strategy as offered by various writers spanning the years 1962 to 1996 are briefly reviewed below.

• Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., author of Strategy and Structure (1962), the classic study of the relationship between an organization’s structure and its strategy, defined strategy as “the determination of the basic long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources for carrying out these goals.” (As we will see later, it is the allocation of re-sources that ties the civilian use of strategy to its military origins.)
• Robert N. Anthony, author of Planning and Control Systems (1965), one of the books that laid the foundation for strategic planning, didn’t give his own definition of strategy. Instead, he used one presented in an unpublished paper by Harvard colleague Kenneth R. Andrews: “the pattern of objectives, purposes or goals and major policies and plans for achieving these goals stated in such a way as to define what business the company is or is to be in and the kind of company it is or is to be.” (Here we can see the emergence of some vision of the company in the future as an element in strategy.)
• Kenneth Andrews, long-time Harvard professor and editor of the Harvard Busi-ness Review, published the first edition of The Concept of Corporate Strategy in 1971 and updated it in 1980. His published definition of strategy took this form in the 1980 edition: “the pattern of decisions in a company that determines and reveals its objectives, purposes or goals, produces the principal policies and plans for achieving those goals, and defines the range of businesses the company is to pursue, the kind of economic and human organization it is or intends to be, and the nature of the economic and non-economic contribution it intends to. Make to its shareholders, employees, customers, and communities.” (Andrews’ definition of strategy is rather all-encompassing and is perhaps best viewed as a variation on the military notion of “grand strategy”.)
• George Steiner, a co-founder of the California Management Review, and author of the 1979 “bible,” Strategic Planning: What Every Manager Must Know, ob-served that there was little agreement on terms or definitions and confined his discussion of the definition of strategy to a lengthy footnote. But, nowhere does he define strategy in straightforward terms.
• Michael Porter, another Harvard professor, became well known with the publication of his 1980 book, Competitive Strategy. Porter defined competitive strategy as “a broad formula for how a business is going to compete, what its goals should be, and what policies will be needed to carry out those goals.” (In contrast with Andrews’ definition, Porter’s is much narrower, focusing as it does on the basis of competition)[3].

Strategy is all these—it is perspective, position, plan, and pattern. Strat-egy is the bridge between policy or high-order goals on the one hand and tactics or concrete actions on the other. Strategy and tactics to-gether straddle the gap between ends and means. In short, strategy is a term that refers to a complex web of thoughts, ideas, insights, experi-ences, goals, expertise, memories, perceptions, and expectations that provides general guidance for specific actions in pursuit of particular ends. Strategy is at once the course we chart, the journey we imagine and, at the same time, it is the course we steer, the trip we actually make. Even when we are embarking on a voyage of discovery, with no particular destination in mind, the voyage has a purpose, an outcome, and an end to be kept in view.

Strategy, then, has no existence apart from the ends sought. It is a gen-eral framework that provides guidance for actions to be taken and, at the same time, is shaped by the actions taken. This means that the nec-essary precondition for formulating strategy is a clear understanding of the ends to be obtained. Without these ends in view, action is purely tactical and can quickly degenerate into nothing more than a flailing about.

3. Method

The method is derived from the Greek “Methodos” which means the way or path taken. In relation to scientific efforts, then the method concerns the workings to able to understand the object of the target science concerned. Function method means as a means to an end. The understanding and definition of method according to experts include :

• Method was described as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach.[4]
• Method is a generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing Jin-guistic objectives. Methods tend to be concerned primarily with teacher and Stu· dent roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing and materials. They are almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences in a variety of contexts.[5]
• Nasir

Method is the way used to understand an object as a matter of science concerned.

• Indonesian Dictionary

Method is a systematic way of working to facilitate the execution of an activity in order to achieve the intended purpose.

• Department social RI

Method is a regular way used to carry out the work to achieve results in accordance with the expected.[6]

From the explanation above, we can conclude that Method is a systematic way of working to facilitate the execution of an activity in order to achieve the intended purpose.

4. Technique

The technique means manner, how to do or perform something or efforts, in ways that teachers use to carry out teaching in the classroom at the time of face to face in order to serve and consolidate the learning materials to achieve the goal of learning.Therefore, the technique is implementation and the occurrence at this stage of the implementation of teaching (presentation and stabilization).It can be concluded that the technique is a tactic or a way of learning undertaken by teachers in implementing the teaching and learning activities in orderto obtain optimal results

• Technique (also commonly referred to by other terms): any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or task used in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives.[7]
• Techniques were the specific activities manifested in the classroom that were consistent with a method and therefore were in harmony with an approach as well.[8]
• A technique is implementation that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. Technique must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.

From the explanation above, we can conclude that, Technique is the exercises, activities, or tasks used in the classroom language that fit the method and therefore also align with the approach to realizing the learning objectives.

1. Kind of Approach, Strategy, Method and Technique
2. Kinds of Approaches in Learning

Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) approach The Contextual Teaching and Learning Approach (CTL) is a learning concept that helps teachers connect between material taught to real-world situations of students and encourages students to make connections between their knowledge and application in their lives as family and community members (US Department of Education, 2001). In this context students need to understand what learning means, its benefits, in what status they are and how to achieve it. By this the students will realize that what they learn is useful as their life later. Thus, it will make them position themselves as needing a useful provision for their later life and students will try to get it. The contextual approach is an approach that helps teachers connect between the material they are teaching and the real-world situations of the students and encourages students to make connections between their knowledge and application in their lives as family members and the community. Contextual approaching itself is done by involving the components of an effective learning component that is constructivism ask, discover, community learning, modeling, reflection, true judgment. In contextual teaching enables the occurrence of five important forms of learning, namely:

• is the most powerful strategy and the core of constructivism. The teacher uses this strategy when he or she associates a new concept with something the student already knows. So by doing so, link what students know about new information.
• is the core of contextual learning where linking means connecting new information with past experience or knowledge. Learning can happen more quickly when students can manipulate equipment and materials and perform active forms of research.
• Students apply a concept when they do problem-solving activities. Teachers can motivate students by stabbing realistic and relevant exercises.
  1. Students who work individually often do not help significant progress. Conversely, students working in groups can often solve complex problems with little help. Cooperation experiences not only replace students learning the material, but consistent with the real world.
  2. The teacher’s role creates a variety of learning experiences with a focus on open understanding, Constructivism approach is an approach in learning that emphasizes the level of creativity of students in channeling new ideas that can be needed for student self-development based on knowledge. Basically constructivism approach is very important in the improvement and development of knowledge possessed by students in the form of basic skills that can be needed in student self development both in school environment and in community environment.

2. Kinds of strategy in Learning

There are at least three basic forms of strategy in the business world and it helps to keep them straight. The objectives of this brief paper are to clarify the general concept of strategy and draw attention to the importance of distinguishing among three forms of strategy: (1) general strategy (or just plain strategy) (2) corporate strategy and (3) competitive strategy (Figure 1).

• STRATEGY IN GENERAL

Strategy, in general, refers to how a given objective will be achieved. Consequently, strategy in general is concerned with the relationships between ends and means, that is, between the results we seek and the resources at our disposal. Strategy and tactics are both concerned with formulating and then carrying out courses of action intended to attain particular objectives. For the most part, strategy is concerned with deploying the resources at your disposal whereas tactics is concerned with employing them.

• CORPORATE VERSUS COMPETITIVE STRATEGY

Corporate strategy defines the markets and the businesses in which a company will operate. Competitive or business strategy defines for a given business the basis on which it will compete. Corporate strategy is typically decided in the context of defining the company’s mission and vision, that is, saying what the company does, why it exists, and what it is intended to become. Competitive strategy hinges on a company’s capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses in relation to market characteristics and the corresponding capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses of its competitors[9].

3. Kinds of Method in Learning

According to Sudjana (1989: 30) included in the learning component is the objectives, materials, methods and tools and assessment Teaching methods used by teachers almost no waste, because the method produces result in the near or in a relatively long time. The result are felt in the near future is said to be direct impact (instructional effect) while the results are felt in a relatively long time called the effects of accompaniment (nurturant effect) is usually associated with attitudes and values. (Syaiful Bahri Djamarah, 2000, 194) Various Methods of Learning:

• METHOD OF CERAMAH

The lecture method is a method that may be said traditional method. Because this method has always been used as a means of oral communication between teachers and students in educational interaction.

1. Advantages of Lecture
2. Teachers easily master the class
3. Easy to implement
4. Can be followed by students in large numbers.
5. Disadvantage of Lecture
6. The activity of teaching becomes verbalism (meaning of words)
7. Learners who are more perceptive from the visual side will be a loss and the more audacious responsive students can receive more.
8. If it’s too long to be boring

• EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Experimental method is a method of providing opportunities to individual or group students, to be trained to perform a process or experiment. With this method students are fully expected to be involved in planning experiments, conducting experiments, finding facts, collecting data, controlling variables, and solving real problems.

1. Advantages of the Experimental Method
2. This method can make the protégé more trustworthy for truth or conclusions based on his own experiments rather than just accepting the word teacher or book.
3. Students can develop an attitude to conduct exploratory studies (exploring) about science and technology, an attitude demanded of a scientist, and
4. With this method will be built humans who can bring new breakthroughs with the discovery as a result of experiments that are expected to be useful for the welfare of human life.
5. Lack of Experimental Method
6. Insufficient tools result in not every student having the opportunity to experiment.
7. If the experiment requires a long period of time, students should wait to continue the lesson; and
8. This method is more appropriate to present the fields of science and technology.[10]

• METHOD OF GRANTING AND RESITATION

Provision of tasks with the meaning of teachers to instruct students for example reading, but by adding tasks such as searching and reading other books in comparison, or being asked to observe people/society after reading the book. Thus, assignment is a work that the learner should accomplish without being attached to the place.

1. Advantages of Assignment and Recitation Methods
2. Knowledge that learners gain from their own learning will be remembered longer; and
3. The students have the opportunity to foster development and courage to take the initiative, take responsibility, and stand alone.
4. Disadvantages of Assignment and Recitation Methods
5. Often students commit fraud in which the protégé only mimics the work of others without undertaking the difficulty of working on their own;
6. Sometimes the task is done by others without supervision

• DISCUSSION METHOD

Discussion is to provide alternative answers to help solve various life problems. With the record of issues to be discussed must be mastered in depth.

1. Advantages of Discussion Method
2. Make students aware that problems can be solved with different paths and not one path (one answer only).
3. Awake the students that by discussing their mutual opinions constructively in order to obtain a better decision.
4. Disadvantages of Discussion Method
5. Cannot be used in large groups;
6. Discussion participants get limited information.

• EXERCISE METHOD

The method of training (driil) is also called training method, which is a way of teaching to instill certain habits. Also, as a means to maintain good habits. In additional, this method can be used to obtain an agility, accuracy, opportunity, and skill.

1. Excess Exercise Method
2. Can to obtain motor skill, such as writing, pronunciation, making and using tools.
3. Be able to obtain mental prowess, such as in multiplication, addition, subtraction, division, signs / symbols, and so on
4. Disadvantages of Exercise Method
5. Inhibit the talent and initiative of the students because the students are more brought to the adjustment and directed to the far and understanding.
6. Make static adjustment to the environment.[11]

• PROJECT METHOD

The project method is a way of teaching that provides an opportunity for students to use the units of everyday life and as learning material. Aiming for students to be interested in learning.

1. Advantages of the Project Method
2. Can break the mindset of students from a narrow become more comprehensive in looking at and solve the problems faced in live.
3. Through this method, students are nurtured by getting used to applying knowledge, attitudes, and skill with an integrated, which is expected to be practical and useful in everyday life.
4. Disadvantages of the Project Method
5. The current curriculum in our country today, either vertically or horizontally, has not supported the implementation of this method.
6. Organizational learning materials, planning, and implementation of these methods are difficult and require special skills from teachers, whereas teachers have not been prepared for this. [12]

• DEMONSTRATION METHOD

            Demonstration learning method is a very effective learning method to help students find answers to questions such as: How to set it? How does it work? How to do it. Demonstration as a learning method is when a teacher or a demonstrator (outsider is deliberately requested) or a student shows to the whole class a process or process. For example the workings of an automatic washing machine, how to make cookies, and so forth.

               Excess Demonstration Method:

1. Student attention can be more centered.
2. Student learning process is more focused on the material being studied.
3. Experience and impression as a result of learning is more inherent in students.

               Weaknesses Demonstration method:

1. Students are sometimes difficult to see clearly objects that are exhibited.
2. Not all objects can be demonstrated.
3. It is difficult to understand if it is demonstrated by teachers who lack the mastery of what is being demonstrated.

• PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

The problem solving method is not just a method of teaching, but it is also a method of thinking, because in problem solving can use other methods that start by searching the data to draw conclusions.

Problem solving method is a method that stimulates thinking and using insight regardless of the quality of opinion submitted by students. A teacher must be good at stimulating his students to try to get his opinion out.[13]

3. Kinds of Technique in Learning

Controlled Technique

1. Warm-up: Mimes, dance, songs, jokes, play. This activity gets the students stimulated, relaxed, motivated, attentive, or otherwise engaged and ready for the lesson. It does not necessarily involve use of the target language.
2. Setting: focusing in on lesson topic. Teacher direct attention to the topic by verbal or nonverbal evocation of the context relevant to the lesson by questioning or mining or picture presentation, possibly by tape recording of situations and people.
3. Organization : structruring or lesson or class activities includes disciplinary action, organization of class furniture and seating, general procedures for class interaction and performance, structure and purpose of lesson, etc.
4. The Use of Teaching Approach, Strategy, Method and Technique
5. Approach

Some leading teaching approaches

1. Discovery Approach

This approach pertains basically to cognitive aspect of learning; the development and organizations of concepts, ideas and insights, and the use of reference and other logical processes to control a situation.

Characteristics:

1. It is inductive, proceeding from the specific to general ones.
2. Freedom is necessary in the discovery approach.
3. The teacher helps the learners acquire knowledge, which is uniquely his own because he discovers it for himself.
4. The end of teaching, using this approach, is the acquisition of knowledge.
5. The students and not the teacher should be actively involved in the process of discovery
6. The students look at the knowledge that they have discovered as something new to them.

Centering on a series of problem solving situations, the discovery approach, therefore, calls for active student involvement. It is student-centered as well as self-directed learning.

Roles of the Teacher

1. Patience is needed in this approach. He does not pressure his students but he gives them enough time to formulate the expected generalization.
2. The teacher should not answer for the students; he can give clues and hints instead. He does not generalize for them.

CONCEPTUAL APPROACH

This approach requires the categorization of content from simple to complex level. Students need not go into an actual investigation or experimentation, which is usually required in discovery approach. A simple act of recalling facts will suffice like asking students to state certain phenomena that they observe.

            This approach recognizes the HIERARCHY OF COGNITION below:

Conceptual scheme

Principle

Generalization

Concept

Fact

         Hierarchy of Cognition (Focus on Teaching, 1989)

Roles of the Teacher

1. The teacher using conceptual approach should be able to master the cognitive hierarchy of discipline. He should be able to categorize all knowledge pertinent to his area; from facts to concepts; from concepts to generalizations; from generalizations to principles; and all of these should be organized around conceptual schemes which are pervasive ideas embodying the whole discipline.
2. The teacher should help students to gather sufficient data to enable them form the expected generalization.
3. The teacher should not conceptualize for his students. The students should conceptualize for themselves.

Advantages

1. Since conceptualization as process involves an active use of mind, certain intellectual processes are being developed like classification, discrimination, synthesis, and judgment. While knowledge is being processed, students have to think logically and holistically.
2. One value of the students’ ability to generalize is that they can make use of the insights gained in certain problematic situations.
3. They could see and realize that bits of information, which seem to be isolated can be organized and pierced together like a jigsaw puzzle around a context in the broader fundamental structure of a field of knowledge. Thus, they become aware that every time the teacher presents a set of facts, the lesson is to be approached in its totality. Thus, meaning is drawn out and derived from it.

PROCESS APPROACH

The process approach may be defined as teaching in which knowledge is used as a means to develop students’ learning skills.

This approach originated from and used to be a monopoly of science instruction. Today, it is identified primarily with skill-oriented subjects like practical arts and home economics and even with knowledge-laden subjects like social studies.

The essence of the process approach lies on three major points:

1. emphasis on process implies a corresponding de-emphasis on the subject content ( the concern is how to learn and not what to learn).
2. it centers upon the idea that what is taught to students should be functional and not theoretical (e.g. if you learn mathematics do what mathematicians do; if you learn science, do what scientists do; and if you learn music, do what musicians do)
3. it introduces the consideration of human intellectual development (produces the consideration of human intellectual development – processes may refer to intellectual skills).

Advantages

1. Teaching a man how to catch fish is must better than giving him fish every time he needs it – this is the adage recognized by process approach.
2. By developing the skills of the students, the teacher is preparing him to be independent, self-sufficient, and productive person. This gives substance to education as a process of “preparing one for his own life”.

ADVANTAGES:

1. it requires them to go beyond the knowledge and skills levels of learning toward the affective dimensions like their attitudes, values, appreciations and the like.
2. They are expected to become more analytical and less gullible.
3. When students have adopted the spirit of inquiry, they become more curious and observant individuals.

The inquiry approach figuratively vibrates a nugget of wisdom:

“In work, every day brings new changes for one to grow, new challenges to meet, and new mission to pursue. If systematically planned, every new day is a step towards one’s pleasant dream”.

UNIFIED APPROACH

Teachers by and large present knowledge in its isolated and fragmented bits, as if each bit is an independent entity by itself.  Once presented to students, these unrelated bits of information seem to be likely unattractive and meaningless to them. They might be able to memorize them for sometime but there is no guarantee that they will retain them. Their tendency is to recite them by rote, especially when there is an examination scheduled in a day’s time or two. But after the test is given, such bits are surely relegated to oblivion.

The unified approach is defined as means of treating relationships that exist among the significant components making up a given body of knowledge. It  is a thorough process of weaving and integrating topics into a general framework or a conceptual scheme. This simply means that the teacher does not treat each concept as an island by itself but rather he relates the previously learned concept with the new concept, until finally the students are able to see the interrelationships among the various concepts that serve as the mainstays or as the cognitive pillars of an academic subject. Its primary aim is to enhance the student’s learning by making him view things in their entirety or totality.

Strategy

Cognitive strategy

1. Translation : using the ferst language as a base for understing and/ or poducting the second language
2. Grouping : reordering or reclassifying, and perhaps labeling, the material to be learned based on common attributes.
3. Note taking : writing down the main idea, important points, outline, or summary of information presented orally or in writing.
4. Deducation :consciously applying rules to produce or understand the second language[14].

Method

 Understanding Learning Methods.

Method is the way used to implement plans that have been prepared in real activities for the purpose that has been arranged is achieved optimally. This means the method is used for realize the process of teaching and learning that has been established. According to Abdurrahman Ginting, learning methods can be interpreted a typical way or pattern in utilizing various principles basic education as well as various other related techniques and resources so that the learning process occurs in the learner In other words the method of learning is the presentation technique which is mastered by a teacher to present the subject matter to students in the classroom either individually or in groups the subject matter can be absorbed, understood and utilized by the students well. In reality, the way or method of learning is used to convey different information in a way that is[15] taken to establish students in mastering knowledge, skills and attitudes. Special methods of learning in the classroom, effectiveness methods are influenced by objective factors, student factors, and situational factors the teacher factor it self.

REFERENCE 

Djamarah, Bahri, Syaiful. Guru dan Anak Didik dalam Iteraksi Edukatif, Jakarta : PT Rineka Cipta, 2000

Douglas Brown, TEACHING by PRINCIPLES An Interactive Approach to Language pedagogy. Pages 14-16

JACK c. RICHARDS AND THEODORE s. RODGERS, Approachnes and Methods in Language Teaching , Cambridge Language Teaching Library. P. 15

Nazir, Mohammad (1999). Metode Penelitian. Jakarta: Erlangga

Nickols, F, Strategy, Strategic Management, Strategic Planning And Strategic Thinking. 2016. Pages 1-2

Nickols, F., Three Forms Of Strategy General, Corporate & Competitive.2016. P.1-2

Simamora, Roymond H. (2009). BUKU AJAR PENDIDIKAN DALAM KEPERAWATAN. Jakarta : EGC

[1]JACK c. RICHARDS AND THEODORE s. RODGERS, Approacnes and Methods in Language Teaching , Cambridge Language Teaching Library. pages 15

[2] H. Douglas Brown, TEACHING by PRINCIPLES An Interactive Approach to Language pedagogy. Pages 14

[3] Nickols, F, Strategy, Strategic Management, Strategic Planning And Strategic Thinking. 2016. Pages 1-2

[4] H. Douglas Brown, TEACHING by PRINCIPLES An Interactive Approach to Language pedagogy. P. 14

[5] H. Douglas Brown, TEACHING by PRINCIPLES An Interactive Approach to Language pedagogy. p.16

[6] Nazir, Mohammad (1999). Metode Penelitian. Jakarta: Erlangga

[7]ibid, p. 16

[8]JACK c. RICHARDS AND THEODORE s. RODGERS, Approachnes and Methods in Language Teaching , Cambridge Language Teaching Library. P. 15

[9]Nickols, F., Three Forms Of Strategy General, Corporate & Competitive.2016. P.1-2

[10] Djamarah, Bahri, Syaiful. Guru dan Anak Didik dalam Iteraksi Edukatif, Jakarta : PT Rineka Cipta, 2000

[11] Djamarah, Bahri, Syaiful. Guru dan Anak Didik dalam Iteraksi Edukatif, Jakarta : PT Rineka Cipta, 2000

[13]Simamora, Roymond H. (2009). BUKU AJAR PENDIDIKAN DALAM KEPERAWATAN. Jakarta : EGC

[14] H. Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and teaching.san Francisco state university.  Pages 125.

[15] Wina Sanjaya, Strategi Pembelajaran Berorientasi Standar Proses Pendidikan (Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group, 2008),147.

 

The Natural Approach

The Definition of Natural Approach

Richards & Rodgers argued that the natural approach is one of the, “language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in nonformal settings.

Based on Terrell and Stephen Krashen the natural approach is one of the communicative approaches to language teaching presently in use.[1]

In addition Richards & Rodgers looking the natural approach is fundamental to distinguish between the notions of method and approach since these two terms might get confused by readers and do not refer to exactly the same thing. First of all, it is important to distinguish between approach and method and to clarify their relationship.[2]

Furthermore Richards & Rodgers also argued that the natural approach is quite demanding for the teacher since he or she has to collect and select materials, which provide learners with comprehensible input.[3]

However according to Tracy Terrell, natural approach is believe to confirm to the naturalistic principles found is succesful second language acquisition.[4]

According to us, we can prepare them for the certainty that they will not be able to find the right word, that they will not be able to understand everything, and we can help insure that they will continue to obtain comprehensible input.

Theory of Language Learning

According to Richards & Rodgers on his book ‘Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching’ the Theory of Language Learning, as follow:

1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Krashen, in his theory of second language acquisition (SLA)suggested that adults have two different ways of developing competence in second languages: Acquisition and learning. “There are two independent ways of developing ability in second languages. ‘Acquisition’ is a subconscious process identical in all important ways to the process children utilize in acquiring their first language, … [and] ‘learning’ …, [which is] a conscious process that results in ‘knowing about’ [the rules of] language” (Krashen 1985:1).

Krashen believes that the result of learning, learned competence (LC) functions as a monitor or editor. That is, while AC is responsible for our fluent production of sentences, LC makes correction on these sentences either before or after their production. This kind of conscious grammar correction, ‘monitoring’, occurs most typically in a grammar exam where the learner has enough time to focus on form and to make use of his conscious knowledge of grammar rules (LC) as an aid to ‘acquired competence’. The way to develop learned competence is fairly easy: analyzing the grammar rules consciously and practising them through exercises. But what Acquisition / Learning Distinction Hypothesis predicts is that learning the grammar rules of a foreign/second language does not result in subconscious acquisition. In other words, what you consciously learn does not necessarily become subconsciously acquired through conscious practice, grammar exercises and the like. Krashen formulates this idea in his well-known statement that “learning does not became acquisition”. It is at this point where Krashen receives major criticism.

2. The Natural Order Hypothesis

According to the hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predicted progression. Certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired before others in first language acquisition and there is a similar natural order in SLA. The average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for English as an ‘acquired’ language is given below: -Ing ——– Aux ——-  Irregular  —— Regular Past Plural  —–>  Article  —-> Past ———-> 3rd Singular Copula ——————————– Possessive.

The implication of natural order is not that second or foreign language teaching materials should be arranged in accordance with this sequence but that acquisition is subconscious and free from conscious intervention (Ellidokuzoglu, 1992).

3. The Input Hypothesis

This hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to learning. Krashen claims that people acquire language best by understanding input that is a little beyond their present level of competence. Consequently, Krashen believes that ‘comprehensible input’ (that is, i + 1) should be provided. The ‘input’ should be relevant and ‘not grammatically sequenced’. The ‘input’ should also be in sufficient quantity as Richards pointed out: “.. child acquirers of a first language are provided with samples of ‘caretaker’ speech, rough – tuned to their present level of understanding, ..[and] adult acquirers of a second language [should be] provided with simple codes that facilitate second language comprehension.” (Richards, J. 1986:133)

4. The Monitor Hypothesis

As is mentioned, adult second language learners have two means for internalizing the target language. The first is ‘acquisition’ which is a subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language. The second means is a conscious learning process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules and are generally aware of their own process. The ‘monitor’ is an aspect of this second process. It edits and make alterations or corrections as they are consciously perceived. Krashen believes that ‘fluency’ in second language performance is due to ‘what we have acquired’, not ‘what we have learned’: Adults should do as much acquiring as possible for the purpose of achieving communicative fluency. Therefore, the monitor should have only a minor role in the process of gaining communicative competence. Similarly, Krashen suggests three conditions for its use: (1) there must be enough time; (2) the focus must be on form and not on meaning; (3) the learner must know the rule.

5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

The learner’s emotional state, according to Krashen, is just like an adjustable filter which freely passes or hinders input necessary to acquisition. In other words, input must be achieved in low-anxiety contexts since acquirers with a low affective filter receive more input and interact with confidence. The filter is ‘affective’ because there are some factors which regulate its strength. These factors are self-confidence, motivation and anxiety state.[5]

Based on the above explanation of literature review, it is known that language learning a great function in second language. Therefore, the teachers must do good explanation while the teachers teaching the students.

The Purpose of The Natural Approach

Based on Krashen and Terrell the natural approach classroom  contains a teacher  whose main purpose is  to create a net of speech which will enable students to begin interacting using the target language and to begin the language acquisition process.

In addition Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell in the late 1970s and early 1980s states that the aims of the natural approach is to foster naturalistic language acquisition in a classroom setting, and to this end it emphasises communication, and places decreased importance on conscious grammar study and explicit correction of student errors. Efforts are also made to make the learning environment as stress-free as possible. In the natural approach, language output is not forced, but allowed to emerge spontaneously after students have attended to large amounts of comprehensible language input.[6]

Furthermor Krashen and Terrell looking the aim of the natural approach is to develop communicative skills, and it is primarily intended to be used with beginning learners. It is presented as a set of principles that can apply to a wide range of learners and teaching situations, and concrete objectives depend on the specific context in which it is used.[7]

Characteristics of the Natural Approach

The natural approach characteristics are :

1. The goal of the approach is aimed at the goal of basic personal communication skills.
2. Learners move through three stages:
3. The preproduction stage is the development of listening comprehension skills.
4. The early production stage, marked with errors.
5. The last stage extends the production into longer stretches of discourse.
6. The teacher needs to focus on meaning, not on form.
7. The teacher does not correct errors.
8. The most noteworthy characteristic is its advocacy of a “silent period”, where preproduction can begin.
9. The silent period encourages the delay of oral production until speech “emerges”.
10. The Natural Approach encourages the teacher not to insist that learners speak right away.
11. The Natural Approach blends well with things like TPR, which builds the learner’s language “ego,” and does not force them into risk-taking situations which could embarrass them.

The natural approach is one of the, “language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in nonformal settings.” (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 190) Krashen and Terrell saw the approach as a “traditional approach to language teaching [because it is] based on the use of language in communicative situations without recourse to the native language.” (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 178)

The approach focuses on input, comprehension, and meaningful communication and puts less emphasis on grammar, teacher monologues, direct repetition and accuracy.

Procedure of the Natural Npproach

To illustrate pro­cedural aspects of the Natural Approach, we will cite examples of how such activities are to be used in the Natural Approach classroom to provide comprehensible input, without requiring production of re­sponses or minimal responses in the target language.

1. Start with TPR [Total Physical Response] commands. At first the com­mands are quite simple: “Stand up. Turn around. Raise your right hand.”
2. Use TPR to teach names of body parts and to introduce numbers and se­quence. “Lay your right hand on your head, put both hands on your shoulder, first touch your nose, then stand up and turn to the right three times” and so forth.
3. Introduce classroom terms and props into commands. “Pick up a pencil and put it under the book, touch a wall, go to the door and knock three times.” Any item which can be brought to the class can be incorporated. “Pick up the record and place it in the tray. Take the green blanket to Larry. Pick up the soap and take it to the woman wearing the green blouse.”
4. Use names of physical characteristics and clothing to identify members of the class by name. The instructor uses context and the items themselves to make the meanings of the key words clear: hair, long, short, etc. Then a student is described. “What is your name?” (selecting a student). “Class. Look at Barbara. She has long brown hair. Her hair is long and brown. Her hair is not short. It is long.” (Using mime, pointing and context to ensure comprehension). “What’s the name of the student with long brown hair?” (Barbara). Questions such as “What is the name of the woman with the short blond hair?” or “What is the name of the student sitting next to the man with short brown hair and glasses?” are very simple to understand by attending to key words, gestures and context. And they re­quire the students only to remember and produce the name of a fellow student. The same can be done with articles of clothing and colors. “Who is wearing a yellow shirt? Who is wearing a brown dress?”
5. Use visuals, typically magazine pictures, to introduce new vocabulary and to continue with activities requiring only student names as response, The instructor introduces the pictures to the entire class one at a time focusing usually on one single item or activity in the picture. He may introduce one to five new words while talking about the picture. He then passes the pic­ture to a particular student in the class. The students’ task is to remember the name of the student with a particular picture. For example, “Tom has the picture of the sailboat. Joan has the picture of the family watching television” and so forth. The instructor will ask questions like “Who has the picture with the sailboat? Does Susan or Tom have the picture of the people on the beach?” Again the students need only produce a name in response.
6. Combine use of pictures with TPR. “Jim, find the picture of the little girl with her dog and give it to the woman with the pink blouse.”
7. Combine observations about the pictures with commands and condition­als. “If there is a woman in your picture, stand up. If there is something blue in your picture, touch your right shoulder.”
8. Using several pictures, ask students to point to the picture being de­scribed. Picture 1. “There are several people in this picture. One appears to be a father, the other a daughter. What are they doing? Cooking. They are cooking a hamburger.” Picture 2. “There are two men in this picture. They are young. They are boxing.” Picture 3 …(Krashen and Terrell 1983: 75-7)[8]

REFERENCES 

Krashen, S. & Terrel, T.D (1983), The Natural Approach, Pergamon

Richards, J. & Rogers, T.S. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: A Description and Analysis. Cambridge University Press.

Richards, Jack; Rodgers, Theodore (2001) Approach and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521008433

Terrell, T.D. (1977. “A natural approach to the acquisition and learning of a language.” Modern Language Journal, bl.

[1] Krashen, S. & Terrel, T.D (1983), The Natural Approach, Pergamon

[2] Richards, J. & Rogers, T.S. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: A Description and Analysis. Cambridge University Press.

[3] Richards, J. & Rodgers T. (2001). Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed). Cambridge. Combridge University Press.

[4] Terrell, T.D. (1977. “A natural approach to the acquisition and learning of a language.” Modern Language Journal, bl

[5] Richards, J. & Rogers, T.S. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: A Description and Analysis. Cambridge University Press.

[6] Krashen, S. & Terrel, T.D (1983), The Natural Approach, Pergamon

[7] Richards, Jack; Rodgers, Theodore (2001) Approach and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521008433.

[8] Krashen, S. & Terrel, T.D (1983), The Natural Approach, Pergamon